Lubricants

17 pages, 5444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Separation and Extraction of Mixed Grinding Chips of Artificial Joints with Different Densities by Multiple Centrifugal Separations

by Cunao Feng, Yujie Zhao, Tao Zhang, Kai Chen, Xiaowei Li and Dekun Zhang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090226 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

Aseptic loosening caused by the wear and tear of the artificial joint prosthesis after implantation is one of the main causes of artificial joint failure. Therefore, it is important to investigate the wear debris generated due to wear when developing new artificial joint [...] Read more.

Aseptic loosening caused by the wear and tear of the artificial joint prosthesis after implantation is one of the main causes of artificial joint failure. Therefore, it is important to investigate the wear debris generated due to wear when developing new artificial joint materials. Aseptic loosening is related to the size, number, and morphology of wear debris, and this study proposed the separation and extraction of mixed wear debris with different density ratios of artificial joints by centrifugation to study the characteristics of different artificial joint wear and wear debris extraction rates. The results showed that multiple centrifugations to separate the mixed wear debris were able to reintroduce the wear debris on the wall of the centrifuge tube into the solution and that the wear debris extraction rate was increased. Suspensions with different density ratios of artificially jointed mixed wear debris were effectively separated by this method. The total extraction rate of the three repeated extractions compared to the first extraction rate, the extraction rate of CoCrMo wear debris increased by 6.7%, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) wear debris increased by 15.1–23.44%, ZrO₂ wear debris increased by 10.91%, and that of polyether ether ketone (PEEK) wear debris increased by 9.95%. This method for separating and extracting wear debris from artificial joints can realize the separation of mixed wear debris from artificial joints and obtain a high extraction rate and high-quality wear debris images, investigate the wear mechanism of artificial joint implants, and provide valuable information on the wear performance of new artificial joint implants under investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art of Tribology in China)

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22 pages, 6385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manipulating Frictional Performance of Wet Clutch Engagement through Material Properties and Operating Conditions

by Siyoul Jang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090225 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2308

Abstract

Wet clutch engagement is mainly influenced by the frictional behaviors between the friction pad and steel plate as well as the lubrication behaviors. A positive μ–V friction coefficient of the wet clutch pad is the most preferable characteristic for improving antishudder behavior. In [...] Read more.

Wet clutch engagement is mainly influenced by the frictional behaviors between the friction pad and steel plate as well as the lubrication behaviors. A positive μ–V friction coefficient of the wet clutch pad is the most preferable characteristic for improving antishudder behavior. In this study, a wet clutch engagement mechanism is theoretically divided into two major frictional behaviors, namely, direct asperity contact of interacting surfaces and hydrodynamic lubrication, for positive μ–V friction performance. These two behaviors are investigated with regard to both material characteristics of the friction pad–steel plate interactions and hydrodynamic lubrication mechanism. Frictional interactions of the friction pad are analyzed according to the material properties of the friction pad, such as elasticity, permeability, and roughness. Hydrodynamic lubrication, by which the initial period of the engagement is dominantly governed by the waviness of surface shape, is investigated to increase the frictional resistance in the initial stage of engagement relative to that in the final stage of engagement for realizing a positive μ–V friction coefficient. Computational simulations of wet clutch engagement behaviors are performed and compared with each other to obtain positive μ–V friction characteristics of the friction pad. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Automotive Tribology II)

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16 pages, 2564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheological Behavior of Different Calf Sera before, during and after Biomechanical Testing

by Maximilian Uhler, Mareike Schonhoff, Timo A. Nees, Tanja Wonerow, Jens Nuppnau, Frank Mantwill, Jan Philippe Kretzer and Stefan Schroeder

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090224 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1582

Abstract

Due to different rheological behavior of human synovial fluid and the test mediums for in vitro examinations, wear tests cannot replicate the in vivo situation completely. The standards for wear testing indicate calf serum as in vitro test medium. However, these standards do [...] Read more.

Due to different rheological behavior of human synovial fluid and the test mediums for in vitro examinations, wear tests cannot replicate the in vivo situation completely. The standards for wear testing indicate calf serum as in vitro test medium. However, these standards do not contain precise information on the main constituent components and the rheological properties. In this study, bovine calf serum and newborn calf serum with a protein concentration of 20 g/L, both approved for wear testing defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), were characterized according to their rheological properties to detect differences before and during tribological simulation. The rheological behavior was determined at five defined intervals of a tribological test. The two test fluids differ in their rheological properties before and during the test and can therefore lead to deviating results in tribological testing. Furthermore, both test media changes considerably over test duration. At a test duration of 0.5 Mio cycles, both fluids have changed so that there is no longer any difference between them in terms of rheological properties. These changes could be attributed to denaturation and degradation of proteins. Thus, the choice of medium impacts tribological test results which should be considered for the interpretation of these studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biolubrication and Biomaterials)

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23 pages, 13320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Stress-State-Dependent Thermo-Mechanical Wear Model for Micro-Scale Contacts

by Jamal Choudhry, Roland Larsson and Andreas Almqvist

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090223 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2643

Abstract

Wear is a complex phenomenon that depends on the properties of materials and their surfaces, as well as the operating conditions and the surrounding atmosphere. At the micro-scale, abrasive wear occurs as material removal due to plastic deformation and fracture. In the present [...] Read more.

Wear is a complex phenomenon that depends on the properties of materials and their surfaces, as well as the operating conditions and the surrounding atmosphere. At the micro-scale, abrasive wear occurs as material removal due to plastic deformation and fracture. In the present work, it is shown that fracture is stress-state-dependent and thus should be accounted for when modelling wear. For this reason, a three-dimensional finite element model has been adopted to simulate and study the main mechanisms that lead to wear of colliding asperities for a pair of metals. The model is also fully coupled with a non-linear thermal solver to account for thermal effects such as conversion of plastic work to heat as well as thermal expansion. It is shown that both the wear and flash temperature development are dependent on the stress triaxiality and the Lode parameter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frictional and Wear Behaviors of Sliding Interfaces across Scales)

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16 pages, 7358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation and Experimental Verification of Dynamic Characteristics on Gas Foil Thrust Bearings Based on Multi-Physics Three-Dimensional Computer Aided Engineering Methods

by Tai-Yuan Yu and Pei-Jen Wang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090222 - 14 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2601

Abstract

This paper presents a method to simulate the dynamic operating characteristics of a gas foil thrust bearing based on linear elastic support and constant ambient temperature to mimic the transient structure–fluid interactions. In the physical model, the top and bump foils are simply [...] Read more.

This paper presents a method to simulate the dynamic operating characteristics of a gas foil thrust bearing based on linear elastic support and constant ambient temperature to mimic the transient structure–fluid interactions. In the physical model, the top and bump foils are simply represented by an infinite number of Hookean springs attached to a solid wall with a small amount of deformation, whereas the gas film in the bearing is under quasi-steady lubrication flow conditions with hydrodynamic pressure distributed on the little-deformed top foil. A three-dimensional multi-physics model in a cylindrical coordinate system is established via a commercial computer-aided engineering software package to predict the nominal dynamic characteristics of the gas foil thrust bearing. To verify the multi-physics model, an experimental bench was built in-house to measure the thrust force on the support of the bearing. With the pertinent bearing parameters being entered into the package, the simulations agree well with the experimental thrust forces. As a further step, a simulation model of a clamped-rotor gas foil thrust bearing design was thoroughly investigated under nominal operating conditions, resulting in predictions of underdamped oscillations in rotor motions. The phenomenon could be described using a linear mass–spring–damper model that is dependent on the gas film thickness. The stiffness and damping coefficients could serve as a base reference for rotor dynamics analysis. This concludes the potential development of a digital twin for gas foil thrust bearing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribological Characteristics of Bearing System)

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10 pages, 1954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Traction (Friction) Curve Is Not a Flow Curve

by Scott Bair

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090221 - 12 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2396

Abstract

With the uncertainty regarding the global energy future, the ability to lubricate concentrated contacts with sufficiently thick liquid films while minimizing friction is of extreme importance. The assumptions of classical elastohydrodynamic lubrication have remained unchanged since the early days. It has not been [...] Read more.

With the uncertainty regarding the global energy future, the ability to lubricate concentrated contacts with sufficiently thick liquid films while minimizing friction is of extreme importance. The assumptions of classical elastohydrodynamic lubrication have remained unchanged since the early days. It has not been possible to test many of these assumptions without the measurement of the viscosity at elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) pressures, and viscometer measurements have been ignored. One of these assumptions has been the equivalence of a traction curve to a rheological flow curve for the lubricant. This notion should have been discarded forty years ago, simply because it required the pressure–viscosity behavior to be unlike the behavior observed in viscometers. At the heart of the problem is the fact that the pressure within the EHL contact is not homogeneous and the liquid properties are highly dependent on pressure, making the contact a very poor rheology laboratory. These past failures must be avoided in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication)

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13 pages, 3492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Mullite Shape and Amount on the Tribological Properties of Non-Asbestos Brake Friction Composites

by Nan Wang and Zixin Yin

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090220 - 10 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1643

Abstract

For investigating the effect of mullite as a reinforced fiber of the non-asbestos brake friction material on the performance of brake pads, mullite reinforced composites with different contents (5% and 10%) and shapes (powder-based and fiber-based) were developed, and the physical and mechanical [...] Read more.

For investigating the effect of mullite as a reinforced fiber of the non-asbestos brake friction material on the performance of brake pads, mullite reinforced composites with different contents (5% and 10%) and shapes (powder-based and fiber-based) were developed, and the physical and mechanical properties of the composites were analyzed. The tribological properties of the composites were tested by a Chase tester followed by the IS-2742 standard, and the worn surface was investigated by three-dimensional surface topography and SEM. The results show that the brake friction material with 5% powdered mullite performs best, having the highest stable friction performance (0.86), the lowest wear rate (3%), the lowest friction variation performance (0.263), and the best fade-recovery performance. With the increase of mullite content, the friction variation, wear resistance, and friction stability of the composites become worse. Meanwhile, the performance of powder-based mullite composites is better than that of fiber-based. The worn surface analysis shows that the fiber-based mullite composite has a higher surface roughness, fewer contact platforms, more wear debris, and peeling pits. In contrast, the powder-based mullite composites have a better surface performance. It provides a practical basis for mullite-reinforced non-asbestos brake friction materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology and Reliability of Mechanical Transmission)

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17 pages, 5444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Metallurgical Slags in Cu-free Friction Material Formulations

by Vlastimil Matějka, Priyadarshini Jayashree, Mara Leonardi, Jozef Vlček, Tomáš Sabovčík and Giovanni Straffelini

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090219 - 10 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1670

Abstract

The aim of our research was to indicate the suitability of metallurgical slags (two blast furnace slags and one steel furnace slag) as the components of Cu-free friction materials. The base mixture consisted of nine components including phenolic resin, graphite, tin sulphide, steel [...] Read more.

The aim of our research was to indicate the suitability of metallurgical slags (two blast furnace slags and one steel furnace slag) as the components of Cu-free friction materials. The base mixture consisted of nine components including phenolic resin, graphite, tin sulphide, steel and aramid fibers, iron powder, a mixture of barite with calcite, and vermiculite. To this base mixture, the slags with a particle size below 0.1 mm were added individually in the amount of 20 wt.%. A base friction mixture with alumina in the amount of 20 wt.% represented the reference. Samples for the friction-wear tests were produced in the form of pins by hot press molding. The prepared pins were tested using a pin-on-disc tester in a drag mode at the pressure of 1 MPa and a constant sliding speed of 1.51 m/s for 90 min. The samples with slags exhibited slightly lower values of steady-state friction coefficient compared to the reference composite with alumina, and at the same time produced lower wear particle emissions. The particle concentration was reduced for the samples with slowly cooled blast furnace and steel furnace slag. The results obtained indicated steel furnace slag as a promising component of Cu-free friction composites. Full article

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16 pages, 69120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cutting Parameters on Tool Chipping Mechanism and Tool Wear Multi-Patterns in Face Milling Inconel 718

by Delin Liu, Zhanqiang Liu and Bing Wang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090218 - 9 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2736

Abstract

Tool wear behavior is mainly influenced by cutting parameters for a given tool–workpiece pair and cutting process. Rapid tool wear increases production costs and deteriorates machining quality in manufacturing industries. Inconel 718 is prone to severe tool wear in the milling process due [...] Read more.

Tool wear behavior is mainly influenced by cutting parameters for a given tool–workpiece pair and cutting process. Rapid tool wear increases production costs and deteriorates machining quality in manufacturing industries. Inconel 718 is prone to severe tool wear in the milling process due to its high strength under elevated temperature and being prone to work hardening. The effects of cutting speed and feed rate on the tool chipping mechanism and tool wear multi-patterns in face milling Inconel 718 with cemented carbide tools are investigated in this research. Firstly, the face milling experiments of Inconel 718 were conducted with various cutting speeds and feed rates. The experimental results show that the tool wear morphology, especially the tool edge chipping on the flank face, is changed with the cutting parameters. Secondly, the tool chipping mechanism in the milling process is discussed. The effects of cutting speed and feed rate on the chipping and wear patterns of cutting tools are clarified. Finally, the ANOVA analysis is conducted to verify the effects of cutting parameters on cutting force, tool life, and tool edge chipping. This work provides an experimental basis for process parameter optimization to alleviate cutting tool wear in machining processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art of Tribology in China)

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12 pages, 2106 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Test Parameters on the Evaluation of Chocolate Silkiness Using the Tribological Method

by Zifeng Ni, Shanhua Qian, Shuai Cheng, Liang Wang and Feifei Xu

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090217 - 8 Sep 2022

Viewed by 1819

Abstract

Silkiness is an extremely important attribute in high-end chocolate, and tribology is one of the commonly used methods of evaluating certain properties of the relevant food. In this study, based on three commercial chocolates of the same brand, the silky sensation was assessed [...] Read more.

Silkiness is an extremely important attribute in high-end chocolate, and tribology is one of the commonly used methods of evaluating certain properties of the relevant food. In this study, based on three commercial chocolates of the same brand, the silky sensation was assessed by means of the professional sensation evaluation method. Artificial saliva was employed to obtain the mixed solutions with different chocolates, and their viscosity and coefficient of friction (CoF) were measured under different test parameters. The correlation of chocolate silkiness with the viscosities and average CoFs (aCoFs) are later discussed. The results showed that the silkiness of the three chocolates were negatively correlated with cocoa concentration and weakly correlated with viscosity. As the chocolate percentage decreased, the aCoF of the mixed solutions decreased, but the aCoF of the mixed solutions increased in relation to the cocoa concentration. In combination with the correlation coefficient of chocolate silkiness with the aCoFs, it was considered that 75% chocolate solutions using the Two-PDMS pair could be representative of the silkiness characteristic in oral processing at suitable operated parameters. The study results provide an insight into the rapid evaluation and development of similar attributes of high-end food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art of Tribology in China)

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17 pages, 4782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamometer Testing of Energy Efficient Hydraulic Fluids and Fuel Savings Analysis for US Army Construction and Material Handling Equipment

by Jill Bramer, Eric Sattler and Paul Michael

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090216 - 8 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2266

Abstract

The US Army uses MIL-PRF-2104 SAE 10 hydraulic fluid in its construction and material handling equipment. This oil meets basic performance requirements but has not been optimized for hydraulic system efficiency. Hydraulic system efficiency is important because fuel transportation has unique costs and [...] Read more.

The US Army uses MIL-PRF-2104 SAE 10 hydraulic fluid in its construction and material handling equipment. This oil meets basic performance requirements but has not been optimized for hydraulic system efficiency. Hydraulic system efficiency is important because fuel transportation has unique costs and dangers in military applications. Two energy efficient hydraulic fluids were compared to MIL-PRF-2104 SAE 10 in dynamometer testing. The higher efficiency fluids reduced internal leakage flow losses and decreased low-speed motor friction. Fleet-wide fuel savings estimates for US Army construction and material handling machines were derived from engine fuel consumption models, vehicle mission profiles, hydraulic circuit analysis and dynamometer test results. The savings due to reduced fuel consumption was estimated to be $8,000,000 per annum. Full article

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20 pages, 5925 KiB

Open AccessReview

Graphene-Family Lubricant Additives: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives

by Yanfei Liu, Shengtao Yu, Qiuyu Shi, Xiangyu Ge and Wenzhong Wang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090215 - 6 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5054

Abstract

Graphene-family materials have been investigated by researchers as promising additives for various lubrication systems due to their unique physical-chemical properties. It has been proven that graphene-family materials can lead to enhanced lubrication and wear-resistance performance, which have potential to reduce the energy losses [...] Read more.

Graphene-family materials have been investigated by researchers as promising additives for various lubrication systems due to their unique physical-chemical properties. It has been proven that graphene-family materials can lead to enhanced lubrication and wear-resistance performance, which have potential to reduce the energy losses and carbon emissions, and the wear of machines for industrial applications. Experimental, theoretical, and simulation studies have been performed to investigate the tribological behaviors of graphene-family materials as additives. The tribological properties of graphene-family materials, including graphene, reduced graphene oxide, functionalized graphene, and the combination of graphene-family materials and other materials as additives, and the fundamental mechanism are systematically reviewed and concluded. The authors also discuss the potential engineering applications of graphene-family materials as lubricating additives, and the unsolved issues and optimistic outlooks in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology of 2D Nanomaterials)

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16 pages, 5093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activated Carbon Nano-Particles from Recycled Polymers Waste as a Novel Nano-Additive to Grease Lubrication

by Mohamed G. A. Nassef, Hassan Shokry Hassan, Galal A. Nassef, Belal Galal Nassef, Mina Soliman and Marwa F. Elkady

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090214 - 6 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3607

Abstract

A worldwide growing trend is dedicated towards reducing carbon dioxide emissions from mechanical systems in different industries. One key factor under focus of research is to decrease energy losses in rotating machinery during operation by improving lubrication performance. This paper presents a novel [...] Read more.

A worldwide growing trend is dedicated towards reducing carbon dioxide emissions from mechanical systems in different industries. One key factor under focus of research is to decrease energy losses in rotating machinery during operation by improving lubrication performance. This paper presents a novel grease nano-additive using activated carbon (AC) as a byproduct from recycled polymer waste. Five different concentrations of AC nanoparticles (ACNPs) are added to lithium grease to obtain blends containing 0.025 wt.%, 0.05 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.5 wt.%, and 1 wt.%. The tribological assessment of blends has been performed using a four-ball wear test and load carrying capacity test. The obtained results for blends are compared to samples of base grease and to blends with 2 wt.% reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Test results showed a remarkable enhancement of load carrying capacity of AC samples by 20–30% as compared to base grease. By observing wear scar in rolling elements, the ACNPs lowered the average wear scar diameter (WSD) for all samples by 30–36%. Base grease samples showed the highest coefficient of friction (COF) values between 0.15 and 0.17. These values are reduced to 0.03 and 0.06 for grease with ACNPs reaching their minimum in the case of 1 wt.% AC. These outcomes are found consistent with the enhancements in driving power saving values. The results proved the competitiveness and suitability of the AC as a recycled waste and nano-additive for improving the tribological performance of grease lubrication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Novel Lubricant Additives)

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17 pages, 11753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Dynamic Exploration of Full-Ceramic Ball Bearings under the Self-Lubrication Condition

by Junxing Tian, Yuhou Wu, Jian Sun, Zhongxian Xia, Kexuan Ren, He Wang, Songhua Li and Jinmei Yao

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090213 - 6 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3041

Abstract

A silicon nitride ceramic bearing has good self-lubricating characteristics. It still has a good operational status under the condition of a lack of oil. However, the temperature distribution of a silicon nitride ceramic bearing during its operation is unclear. To clarify the thermal [...] Read more.

A silicon nitride ceramic bearing has good self-lubricating characteristics. It still has a good operational status under the condition of a lack of oil. However, the temperature distribution of a silicon nitride ceramic bearing during its operation is unclear. To clarify the thermal distribution of a full-ceramic ball silicon nitride ceramic bearing under self-lubricating conditions, the changing trend of the rolling friction temperature between the rolling elements and channels with different accuracies is analyzed using the friction testing machine. The bearing heat generation model based on the silicon nitride material coefficient is established, and the life test machine measures the temperature of the bearing to verify the accuracy of the simulation model. The results show that the friction temperature between the ceramic ball and channel decreases with the increase in ceramic ball level. With an increase in the ceramic ball pressure and temperature, the friction temperature rises. Under self-lubrication, when the bearing bears a heavy load, the influence of the rotating speed on temperature rise tends to decrease. Under the condition of high speed, with the increase in load, the change range of temperature rise shows an upward trend. The important relationship between the bearing’s heat and bearing’s load and speed is revealed. It provides some theoretical guidance for the thermal analysis of a silicon nitride ceramic ball bearing under the self-lubricating condition to improve the service life and reliability of full-ceramic ball bearings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bearing Lubrication and Thermal Sciences)

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17 pages, 6314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wear Behavior of Bronze vs. 100Cr6 Friction Pairs under Different Lubrication Conditions for Bearing Applications

by Recep Demirsöz

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090212 - 2 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2679

Abstract

Damage due to a shortage or excess of or the pollution of lubricating oil is often cited as one of the most significant issues confronted by the rolling mill sectors. Lubrication can be provided by either central lubrication systems or individual lubrication systems. [...] Read more.

Damage due to a shortage or excess of or the pollution of lubricating oil is often cited as one of the most significant issues confronted by the rolling mill sectors. Lubrication can be provided by either central lubrication systems or individual lubrication systems. In this study, the wear characteristics of the mono-block rolling plain bearing material that is utilized in wire rod rolling mills were evaluated under conditions where the lubricating oil medium included either 2.5% of scale, 5% of scale, or no scale at all. In this experimental study, a unique ball-on-flat experimental setup similar to the one used in the ASTM G133-05 standards was used. Bronze was used as the bearing material and 100Cr6 roller-bearing steel was used as a steel ball of 6 mm in diameter. The experiments were carried out at room temperature, at three different sliding speeds of 5 mm/s, 10 mm/s, and 15 mm/s, and with three different loads of 10 N, 20 N, and 30 N. The wear mechanisms were analyzed visually and elementally using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) methods. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the Response Surface Method (RSM) were used to analyze the test results, such as volumetric material loss, the coefficient of friction, and the surface profile. In this study, which was carried out in a lubricant environment containing solid particles, the most effective parameter was the environmental parameter. The increase in the number of solid particles caused an increase in volume loss and friction coefficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cooling/Lubrication Methods in Surface Engineering and Machining Applications of Different Materials)

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20 pages, 6429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Roles of Eco-Friendly Non-Edible Vegetable Oils in Drilling Inconel 718 through Minimum Quantity Lubrication

by Nur Syahilia Syahira Safie, Muhamad Nasir Murad, Tan Chye Lih, Azwan Iskandar Azmi, Wan Azmi Wan Hamzah and Mohd Danish

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090211 - 2 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2336

Abstract

Metal cutting fluids (MCFs) have played a principal role as coolants and lubricants in the machining industry. However, the wide use of mineral-based oil MCFs has contributed to an adverse effect on humans and the environment. Thus, to overcome the adverse effects of [...] Read more.

Metal cutting fluids (MCFs) have played a principal role as coolants and lubricants in the machining industry. However, the wide use of mineral-based oil MCFs has contributed to an adverse effect on humans and the environment. Thus, to overcome the adverse effects of mineral-based oil MCFs, eco-friendly vegetable oil, which is non-edible oil, has been implemented to overcome the issues related to edible oil such as manufacturing costs and food shortages. This study investigated the performance of three different types of non-edible oil, namely castor, neem, and rice bran oils in drilling Inconel 718 using a coated titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN) carbide drill towards tool life, tool wear, surface integrity, dimensional accuracy, and chip thickness. The MCFs were implemented under the minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) condition at a 50 mL/h flow rate using different cutting speeds (10, 20 m/min) and a constant feed (0.015 mm/rev). The results showed that castor oil minimizes the rapid growth of tool wear and prolongs the tool life by 50% at 10 m/min as compared to rice bran oil. At 20 m/min, castor oil obtained the lowest values of average surface roughness (1.455 µm) and chip thickness (0.220 mm). It was also found that different cutting speeds did not contribute to any significant trend towards hole diameter and roundness for all MCFs. The outstanding performance of castor oil proved that the oil is a potential alternative as an eco-friendly MCF for a cleaner machining environment. Castor oil was determined to be optimum in terms of tool life, tool wear, surface roughness, and chip thickness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biolubricants in Machining)

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17 pages, 6612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Non-Edible Green Oils to Lubricate DC04 Steel Sheets in Sheet Metal Forming Process

by Tomasz Trzepieciński, Marek Szewczyk and Krzysztof Szwajka

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090210 - 30 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2329

Abstract

Lubrication is a basic and relatively effective way to reduce friction in sheet metal forming operations. The drive to eliminate synthetic and mineral oils, which are difficult to recycle, from the manufacturing process has opened up opportunities for the use of vegetable-based bio-lubricants. [...] Read more.

Lubrication is a basic and relatively effective way to reduce friction in sheet metal forming operations. The drive to eliminate synthetic and mineral oils, which are difficult to recycle, from the manufacturing process has opened up opportunities for the use of vegetable-based bio-lubricants. This article presents a comparison of the lubrication performance of two non-edible oils (karanja and moringa) with the most frequently tested edible oils (sunflower and rape-seed). Deep drawing quality low-carbon steel sheets DC04, commonly used in the automotive industry, were used as the test material. Friction tests were carried out under various lubricants and normal pressures in the range between 3 and 12 MPa using the strip drawing test. Furthermore, a study was also made of the effect of a change in the surface topography and the mechanical properties of the sheet metal due to plastic deformation resulting from friction. It was found that under the most favorable lubrication conditions (sample pre-strain 21%, nominal pressure 6 MPa), karanja oil reduced the coefficient of friction by approximately 33%. Both non-edible lubricants provided the best lubrication when testing samples pre-strained at 7% under the whole range of nominal pressures. It was also revealed that in the case of the smallest pre-straining of the specimens (7%), karanja oil was the most effective within nominal pressures of 3–6 MPa, while at higher pressures (9–12 MPa), the moringa oil lowered the value of the coefficient of friction to a greater extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Tribology: New Insights toward a Sustainable World 2023)

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16 pages, 1519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Bioconvective Magnetized Walter’s B Nanofluid Flow towards a Cylindrical Disk with Artificial Neural Networks

by Anum Shafiq, Andaç Batur Çolak and Tabassum Naz Sindhu

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090209 - 30 Aug 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 1959

Abstract

Nanotechnology is a fundamental component of modern technology. Researchers have concentrated their efforts in recent years on inventing various algorithms to increase heat transmission rates. Using nanoparticles in host fluids to dramatically improve the thermal properties of ordinary fluids is one way to [...] Read more.

Nanotechnology is a fundamental component of modern technology. Researchers have concentrated their efforts in recent years on inventing various algorithms to increase heat transmission rates. Using nanoparticles in host fluids to dramatically improve the thermal properties of ordinary fluids is one way to address this problem. The article deals with the bio-convective Walter’s B nanofluid with thermophoresis and Brownian diffusion through a cylindrical disk under artificial neural networks (ANNs). In addition, the thermal conductivity, radiation, and motile density of microorganisms are taken into consideration. The Buongiorno model is utilized to investigate the properties of nanofluids in motile microorganisms. By using appropriate similarity variables, a dimensionless system of a differential system is attained. The non-linear simplified system of equations has been numerically calculated via the Runge–Kutta fourth-order shooting process. The consequences of flow parameters on the velocity field, temperature distribution, species volumetric concentration, and microorganism fields are all addressed. Two distinct artificial neural network models were produced using numerical data, and their prediction performance was thoroughly examined. It is noted that according to the error histograms, the ANN model’s training phase has very little error. Furthermore, mean square error values calculated for local Nusselt number, local Sherwood number, and local motile density number, parameters were obtained as

3.58 \times 10^{- 3}

,

1.24 \times 10^{- 3}

, and

3.55 \times 10^{- 5}

, respectively. Both artificial neural network models can predict with high accuracy, according to the findings of the calculated performance parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Tribological Properties and Mathematical Analysis of Nanofluids)

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10 pages, 2855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation on Synergetic Effects of Micro Grooves and WSe₂ in Sliding Contact

by Yuan Wei, Shuang Li, He Huang, Chongliang Ding and Xuewen Wang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090208 - 30 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1776

Abstract

Improving tribological behaviors for dry contacts has always been a hot study topic, since liquid lubricants are not applicable for certain vital scenarios, including space travel equipment. This study describes the synergetic effects of micro groove texture and WSe₂ flakes as solid [...] Read more.

Improving tribological behaviors for dry contacts has always been a hot study topic, since liquid lubricants are not applicable for certain vital scenarios, including space travel equipment. This study describes the synergetic effects of micro groove texture and WSe₂ flakes as solid lubricants on friction reduction in dry sliding contact. The reciprocating sliding tests were performed under the dry and WSe₂ flake-filled conditions while varying the texture geometric feathers and WSe₂ flake sizes. According to the experimental results, the coefficient of friction (CoF) could be reduced by 80% due to the combination of micro grooves and WSe₂ flakes compared to the non-textured cases. The optimal width (b = 130 µm) of the groove was identified under both dry and WSe₂ flake-filled conditions. The SEM observation suggested that the WSe₂ flakes have different sizes. The influence of the WSe₂ granularity on reducing friction was discussed based on the results. This study provides a novel solution for reducing friction, which suggests that there is a synergetic effect and optimal parameters for friction reduction with micro grooves and WSe₂ flakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Programmable/Controllable Friction in Tribology)

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20 pages, 16631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of the Work of Bridge Spherical Bearing at Different Antifriction Layer Locations

by Anatoliy A. Adamov, Anna A. Kamenskikh, Anastasia P. Pankova and Veronika I. Strukova

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090207 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2895

Abstract

The novel results reported here present qualitative and quantitative regularities of the deformation behavior of a spherical bearing with a different location and inclination angle of the antifriction layer. A number of topical problems encountered during the assessment of the performance bearings are [...] Read more.

The novel results reported here present qualitative and quantitative regularities of the deformation behavior of a spherical bearing with a different location and inclination angle of the antifriction layer. A number of topical problems encountered during the assessment of the performance bearings are considered in the work. The spherical bearings of the bridge span are investigated. Structures are load-bearing elements of transport systems. They perceive thermal power loads from the bridge span. The temperature problem is not considered in this study. In this paper, a comparative analysis of the bridge spherical bearing operation at different antifriction layer locations was performed. Two bearing geometries are considered: the interlayer is pressed in a spherical segment (classical geometry); the interlayer is pressed into a recess located in the lower steel plate. The six modern antifriction materials considered proved suitable to some extent as contact unit sliding layers for various purposes. Additionally, the influence of the inclination angle of the antifriction layer end face on the structure operation for all sliding layer material variants was analyzed. It has been established that the bearing design with an interlayer in the lower steel plate has a more favorable deformation behavior. Changing of the inclination angle of the antifriction layer end face leads to a decrease in the maximum level of contact parameters and deformation characteristics for all the considered structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction and Lubrication of Sliding Bearings, Volume II)

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14 pages, 3757 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Influence of Bearing Ring Inclination on Precision Ball Bearing Contact and Heat Generation Performance

by Bei Yan, Xiaohong Zhang and Zanfei Zhu

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090206 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3049

Abstract

The assembly quality between bearing components will lead to an increase in the load imbalance of each rolling element, which becomes a factor that affects the heat generation of precision bearings. The motion and heat generation of angular contact ball bearing (ACBB) under [...] Read more.

The assembly quality between bearing components will lead to an increase in the load imbalance of each rolling element, which becomes a factor that affects the heat generation of precision bearings. The motion and heat generation of angular contact ball bearing (ACBB) under different assembly states were studied, and the quasi-static model of ACBB with outer ring tilting was established. The contact angle, contact load and motion posture of rolling elements were obtained. Then, the relative imbalance of the outer ring was experimentally simulated based on the outer spacer ring with poor end-parallelism, and the thermal characteristics of the spindle system were monitored. Through theoretical and experimental comparison, the influence of different skew degrees of rings on bearing heat generation and spindle rotation accuracy was discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bearing Lubrication and Thermal Sciences)

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9 pages, 1215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acid Number Prediction Model of Lubricating Oil Based on Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy

by Fanhao Zhou, Kun Yang, Dayang Li and Xinfa Shi

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090205 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2257

Abstract

The monitoring and replacement of lubricating oil has an important impact on mechanical equipment. In this study, based on the infrared spectroscopy monitoring method, an acid value index prediction model is established. The support vector machine regression method is used to quantitatively analyze [...] Read more.

The monitoring and replacement of lubricating oil has an important impact on mechanical equipment. In this study, based on the infrared spectroscopy monitoring method, an acid value index prediction model is established. The support vector machine regression method is used to quantitatively analyze the acid number of the oil sample, which verifies the stability and predictive ability of the quantitative prediction model, and we provide a theoretical basis and practical examples for the online monitoring of oil indicators. In addition, a support vector machine regression model is established by observing the changing law of the spectral absorption peak and selecting the dominant wavelength, and it is compared against the prediction algorithm of the long- and short-term memory network. By comparing the deviation relationship between the predicted value and the real chemical value, the feasibility of the infrared spectroscopy prediction model is verified. The experimental results show that the correlation coefficient between the predicted value of the model and the actual measured value reaches 0.98. This proves that the prediction effect of the prediction model based on the infrared spectrum data and the support vector machine regression method is better than that of the long- and short-term memory network trend prediction model, and the predicted results are reliable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art of Tribology in China)

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9 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring the Frictional Behavior and Adhesion of PET Bottles

by Emmanuel P. Georgiou, Dirk Drees, Lais M. Lopes and Christian Gerlach

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090204 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2081

Abstract

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), due to its excellent physical and chemical properties, has become a widely used packaging material for liquids across many consumer market segments. However, one of the most common problems met in bottle manufacturing is the pile-up of bottles during conveying, [...] Read more.

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), due to its excellent physical and chemical properties, has become a widely used packaging material for liquids across many consumer market segments. However, one of the most common problems met in bottle manufacturing is the pile-up of bottles during conveying, due to static electrification caused by localized friction. To minimize such phenomena, a thin lubricant layer is applied onto the bottles. The absence of a thin lubricant layer increases the risk of localized sticking phenomena and pileups. In this work, an attempt is made to study the frictional behavior of commercially available PET bottles, with and without lubrication by using a high precision and light load technique. By analyzing the complete tribological pattern of the tangential force and not just averaged values, localized sticking events can be identified. In addition, by performing indentation-retraction measurements the electrostatic forces in a bottle-to-bottle contact can be measured. By combining light load friction and adhesion methods, a better understanding of PET sticking phenomena can be achieved which then can be translated in optimizing (minimizing) the amount of lubricant to be used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribological Design in Real-Life Applications—the Lubricant Perspective)

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15 pages, 6715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Near-Net Forging of Titanium and Titanium Alloys with Low Friction and Low Work Hardening by Using Carbon-Supersaturated SKD11 Dies

by Tatsuhiko Aizawa, Tatsuya Funazuka and Tomomi Shiratori

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090203 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2080

Abstract

A new near-net forging procedure of titanium and titanium alloys was proposed by using a carbon-supersaturated punch and die. Due to the in situ formation of carbon-based tribofilm on the contact interface between the dies and work materials, a low frictional state was [...] Read more.

A new near-net forging procedure of titanium and titanium alloys was proposed by using a carbon-supersaturated punch and die. Due to the in situ formation of carbon-based tribofilm on the contact interface between the dies and work materials, a low frictional state was sustained through the forging process even in a high reduction in thickness. The work hardening was suppressed during forging; an additional annealing process was unnecessary through the whole process of near-net forging. Pure titanium and β-phase titanium alloy wires were utilized to describe their galling-free forging behavior when increasing the reduction in thickness. Wires with a diameter of 3 mm were upset in a single-shot forging. The reduction in thickness reached 58% when upsetting the pure titanium wire and 45% when upsetting the β-phase titanium alloys, without lubricating materials or oils at room temperature. The friction coefficient on the contact interface was estimated to be 0.05 by inverse analysis. The work-hardening behavior was described by the hardness mapping on the work cross section. The formation of carbon tribofilms was explained by microstructural analysis, element mapping, and Raman spectroscopy. This tribofilm was formed from the isolated carbon solute from the carbon-supersaturated punch and die to sustain the in situ solid lubrication on the contact interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Abrasive Wear)

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24 pages, 11997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metallographic Study and Sliding Wear Optimization of Nano Si₃N₄ Reinforced High-Strength Al Metal Matrix Composites

by Ashish Kumar, Ravindra Singh Rana, Rajesh Purohit, Kuldeep K. Saxena, Jinyang Xu and Vinayak Malik

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090202 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2060

Abstract

The strongest among the all-aluminum alloy series is 7xxx due to its unique composition of alloying elements, making it perfect for automotive and aerospace applications. The present research included manufacturing of Si₃N₄ reinforced aluminum alloy (AA) 7068 nanocomposites via stir [...] Read more.

The strongest among the all-aluminum alloy series is 7xxx due to its unique composition of alloying elements, making it perfect for automotive and aerospace applications. The present research included manufacturing of Si₃N₄ reinforced aluminum alloy (AA) 7068 nanocomposites via stir casting combined with ultrasonication, followed by a bottom pouring technique. The Si₃N₄ reinforcement has been conducted in different fractions (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2%) by weight. The microstructure characterization of prepared composites was conducted using FESEM, EDS, and elemental mapping. The microstructure of the AA7068 matrix was significantly refined after incorporating Si₃N₄ nanoparticles. The hardness of alloy increased with reinforcement addition and maximized at 1.5 wt.% due to the combined effect of hard Si₃N₄, difference in thermal co-efficient, Hall-Petch, and Orowan strengthening mechanism. The wear resistance significantly increased after incorporating (Si₃N₄)np in the alloy by increased load-bearing capacity and hardness of nanocomposites. The wear of alloy and nanocomposites is mainly due to the adhesion, two-body, and three-body abrasion mechanism. Optimization of wear parameters was completed using the Taguchi approach. The L-25 orthogonal array was selected to perform the wear test, and, later, the ANOVA tool was used to understand the percentage contribution of each factor. The load has the maximum contribution of 65.67%, followed by reinforcement wt.% and sliding distance. Minimum wear loss was noticed when the wear test was conducted on optimum wear parameters (1.5 wt.% reinforcement, 10 N load, and 400 m sliding distance). Hardness and wear behavior were oppositely influenced by the clustering of particles found at 2 wt.% nanocomposites. Full article

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12 pages, 3756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Vibration Induced by Friction in a Ball Joint System

by Jaeyoung Kang

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090201 - 26 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1709

Abstract

In this paper, the nonlinear oscillations induced by friction in a ball-on-socket system are investigated. The nonlinear time response was obtained by solving the differential equations of the friction-noise model of the finite element ball with multiple modes. The different patterns of motion [...] Read more.

In this paper, the nonlinear oscillations induced by friction in a ball-on-socket system are investigated. The nonlinear time response was obtained by solving the differential equations of the friction-noise model of the finite element ball with multiple modes. The different patterns of motion were analyzed via the bifurcation diagram, Poincare map, and recurrence plot. The Lyapunov exponents of the discontinuous system with distributed contact were calculated using the Muller method. From the analysis, it is shown that a friction-noise of a ball joint can retain periodic, quasi-periodic, or chaotic oscillations with respect to tilted contact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Friction and Lubrication of Sliding Bearings, Volume II)

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19 pages, 6749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of a Low-Loss Gear Geometry Using a Thermal Elastohydrodynamic Simulation including Mixed Lubrication

by Felix Farrenkopf, Andreas Schwarz, Thomas Lohner and Karsten Stahl

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090200 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2406

Abstract

Low-loss gears are an interesting design approach for increasing the efficiency and thermal load limits of gearboxes. The loss-optimized gear geometry concentrates sliding around the pitch point, which results in low load-dependent gear power losses. In this study, a method for modeling transient [...] Read more.

Low-loss gears are an interesting design approach for increasing the efficiency and thermal load limits of gearboxes. The loss-optimized gear geometry concentrates sliding around the pitch point, which results in low load-dependent gear power losses. In this study, a method for modeling transient EHL (elastohydrodynamically lubricated) contacts in gear mesh considering mixed lubrication and thermal effects is introduced and applied to analyze the tribological behavior of a low-loss gear geometry. Special focus is placed on local frictional losses to analyze the role of the thermal effects of the gear mesh. Although a thermal reduction in fluid friction is observed, the overall effect on total frictional losses of the low-loss gear geometry is evaluated to be very small. The edge geometry strongly influences the lubricant film thickness and frictional power losses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Simulations in Lubrication)

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16 pages, 4956 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attaining Ultra-Smooth 18CrNiMo7-6 Case Hardening Steel Surfaces with Chemical Mechanical Polishing

by Wumao Peng, Yang Gao, Liang Jiang, Jinwei Liu and Linmao Qian

Lubricants 2022, 10(9), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10090199 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2585

Abstract

Smooth surfaces are conducive to improving the lubrication of gears in mechanical systems. In this study, chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) was used to process 18CrNiMo7-6 case hardening steel, a typical material for gears. The results reveal that compared with formic acid and oxalic [...] Read more.

Smooth surfaces are conducive to improving the lubrication of gears in mechanical systems. In this study, chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) was used to process 18CrNiMo7-6 case hardening steel, a typical material for gears. The results reveal that compared with formic acid and oxalic acid, citric acid can be used as a suitable complexing agent without causing apparent corrosion, probably due to the fact of its relatively stable adsorption. A synergistic effect exists between citric acid and H₂O₂. At pH 3, with 0.067 M citric acid and 1 wt% H₂O₂, a satisfactory CMP performance (i.e., a 514 nm/min material removal rate (MRR) and a 0.85 nm surface roughness S_a) was achieved. After polishing, no observable defects were found on the surface, and no discernible processing damage occurred to the substrate. In terms of the CMP’s mechanism, iron is first oxidized to Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺, which then react with citric acid to form complexes. On the one hand, most of the complexes may stay on the surface to prevent further corrosion and, thus, the surface quality is excellent. On the other hand, the complexes may reduce the surface integrity and, thus, the MRR is high. The findings open new avenues for attaining ultra-smooth steel surfaces with CMP through controlling corrosive wear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribology in Processing and Application of Steels)

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Lubricants, Volume 10, Issue 9 (September 2022) – 28 articles

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