Journal of Intelligence

21 pages, 4816 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Visualization Supports Students’ Math: Mechanisms for Spatial Transfer

by Tom Lowrie and Tracy Logan

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060127 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5357

The present study conducted a randomized control trial to assess the efficacy of two spatial intervention programs aimed to improve Grade 4 (N = 287) students’ spatial visualization skills and math performance. The first treatment (N = 98) focused on isolated spatial training [...] Read more.

The present study conducted a randomized control trial to assess the efficacy of two spatial intervention programs aimed to improve Grade 4 (N = 287) students’ spatial visualization skills and math performance. The first treatment (N = 98) focused on isolated spatial training that included 40 min of digital spatial training across fourteen weeks. The second treatment (N = 92) embedded spatial visualization skill development into math lessons, along with the digital spatial training that provided practice of the newly acquired skills. A business-as-usual group acted as a control (N = 97). Engagement with the embedded intervention program (i.e., both lessons and digital training) showed large additive effects, highlighting the role of spatial reasoning tools to support the transfer of spatial reasoning to math. The isolated intervention program with the digital spatial training had a transfer effect on math, compared to a business-as-usual control, while spatial reasoning improvements for this group were mixed. The spatial skills targeted in the digital training had a mediation effect on math performance, despite not increasing in the pre–post-test design. The effects of the digital training cohort were moderated by initial spatial skill, with students with lower spatial reasoning making the least gains in math. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial Intelligence and Learning)

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20 pages, 444 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Modern Assessments of Intelligence Must Be Fair and Equitable

by LaTasha R. Holden and Gabriel J. Tanenbaum

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060126 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 9123

Abstract

Historically, assessments of human intelligence have been virtually synonymous with practices that contributed to forms of inequality and injustice. As such, modern considerations for assessing human intelligence must focus on equity and fairness. First, we highlight the array of diversity, equity, and inclusion [...] Read more.

Historically, assessments of human intelligence have been virtually synonymous with practices that contributed to forms of inequality and injustice. As such, modern considerations for assessing human intelligence must focus on equity and fairness. First, we highlight the array of diversity, equity, and inclusion concerns in assessment practices and discuss strategies for addressing them. Next, we define a modern, non-g, emergent view of intelligence using the process overlap theory and argue for its use in improving equitable practices. We then review the empirical evidence, focusing on sub-measures of g to highlight the utility of non-g, emergent models in promoting equity and fairness. We conclude with suggestions for researchers and practitioners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

17 pages, 1123 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emotional Intelligence as Evaluative Activity: Theory, Findings, and Future Directions

by Michael D. Robinson, Muhammad R. Asad and Roberta L. Irvin

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060125 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5464

Abstract

The question of whether ability-related emotional intelligence (ability EI) predicts important life outcomes has attracted considerably more attention than the question of what ability EI consists of. In the present paper, the authors draw from the attitude and emotion literatures to suggest that [...] Read more.

The question of whether ability-related emotional intelligence (ability EI) predicts important life outcomes has attracted considerably more attention than the question of what ability EI consists of. In the present paper, the authors draw from the attitude and emotion literatures to suggest that the evaluation dimension of meaning is likely key in understanding how ability EI operates. Measures of ability EI predict the extent to which individuals can accurately evaluate words and measures of the latter type act as emotional intelligence measures. Extending this analysis, the paper reviews recent sources of data linking ability EI to attitudinal processes, such as those involved in attitude–behavior relationships and affective bipolarity. Individuals with high EI appear to experience their affect in more bipolar terms and they display evidence of greater decisiveness in their evaluations. Pursuing links of the present type will allow researchers to generate new predictions concerning the ability EI construct. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: Knowns, Unknowns, and Future Directions)

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15 pages, 640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of Intuitive and Analytic Thinking in Autism: The Case of Cognitive Reflection

by Kinga Morsanyi and Jayne Hamilton

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060124 - 20 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 19141

Abstract

The cognitive reflection test (CRT) is a short measure of a person’s ability to resist intuitive response tendencies, and to produce normatively correct responses that are assumed to be based on effortful, analytic thinking. A remarkable characteristic of the CRT is that although [...] Read more.

The cognitive reflection test (CRT) is a short measure of a person’s ability to resist intuitive response tendencies, and to produce normatively correct responses that are assumed to be based on effortful, analytic thinking. A remarkable characteristic of the CRT is that although the questions are open-ended, for each item, the vast majority of people either produce a correct, analytic response or a typical incorrect (i.e., intuitive) response. This unique feature of the CRT makes it possible to investigate the question of whether autistic and neurotypical people share the same intuitions. We report a study that included adolescents and young adults. In both age groups, autistic and neurotypical participants were matched on age, gender, cognitive ability, and educational background. In line with previous findings, the results showed an age-related increase in analytic responding on the CRT, and a decrease in intuitive responding. Crucially, the proportion of both intuitive and analytic responses across autistic and neurotypical participants was identical in both age groups. The current results are in contrast with claims that autistic individuals have an increased tendency toward an analytic/rational type of processing, which is commonly attributed to an impairment within their intuitive reasoning mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

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14 pages, 1051 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Reconceptualizing Emotion Recognition Ability

by Konstantinos Kafetsios and Ursula Hess

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060123 - 19 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1971

Abstract

Emotion decoding accuracy (EDA) plays a central role within the emotional intelligence (EI) ability model. The EI-ability perspective typically assumes personality antecedents and social outcomes of EI abilities, yet, traditionally, there has been very limited research to support this contention. The present paper [...] Read more.

Emotion decoding accuracy (EDA) plays a central role within the emotional intelligence (EI) ability model. The EI-ability perspective typically assumes personality antecedents and social outcomes of EI abilities, yet, traditionally, there has been very limited research to support this contention. The present paper argues that the way in which EDA has been conceptualized and operationalized in EI research has ignored developments in social perception theory and research. These developments point, on one hand, to the importance of embedding emotion expressions in a social context and, on the other, to reformulating the definitions of emotion decoding accuracy. The present paper outlines the importance of context in the framework of a truth and bias model of the social perception of emotions (Assessment of Contextualized Emotions, ACE) for EI abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: Knowns, Unknowns, and Future Directions)

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21 pages, 944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Training Emotional Intelligence Online: An Evaluation of WEIT 2.0

by Marco Jürgen Held, Theresa Fehn, Iris Katharina Gauglitz and Astrid Schütz

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060122 - 15 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2890

Abstract

With the growing popularity of online courses, there is an increasing need for scientifically validated online interventions that can improve emotional competencies. We addressed this demand by evaluating an extended version of the Web-Based Emotional Intelligence Training (WEIT 2.0) program. Based on the [...] Read more.

With the growing popularity of online courses, there is an increasing need for scientifically validated online interventions that can improve emotional competencies. We addressed this demand by evaluating an extended version of the Web-Based Emotional Intelligence Training (WEIT 2.0) program. Based on the four-branch model of emotional intelligence, WEIT 2.0 focuses on improving participants’ emotion perception and emotion regulation skills. A total of 214 participants were randomly assigned to the training group (n = 91) or a waiting list control group (n = 123) to evaluate short-term (directly after WEIT 2.0) and long-term intervention effects (8 weeks later). Two-way MANOVAs and mixed ANOVAs showed significant treatment effects for self-reported emotion perception of the self, as well as emotion regulation of the self and others, after 8 weeks. No significant treatment effects were found for self-reported emotion perception in others or for performance-based emotion perception or emotion regulation. Moderator analyses revealed no significant effects of digital affinity on training success from the pretest to the posttest. The findings suggest that components of self-reported emotional intelligence can be enhanced through WEIT 2.0, but performance-based emotional intelligence cannot. Further research is needed on the online training of emotional intelligence and the mechanisms that underlie training success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ability-Related Emotional Intelligence: Knowns, Unknowns, and Future Directions)

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14 pages, 951 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

Contributions of Lower Structures to Higher Cognition: Towards a Dynamic Network Model

by William Saban and Shai Gabay

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060121 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1679

Abstract

Researchers often attribute higher cognition to the enlargement of cortical regions throughout evolution, reflecting the belief that humans sit at the top of the cognitive pyramid. Implicitly, this approach assumes that the subcortex is of secondary importance for higher-order cognition. While it is [...] Read more.

Researchers often attribute higher cognition to the enlargement of cortical regions throughout evolution, reflecting the belief that humans sit at the top of the cognitive pyramid. Implicitly, this approach assumes that the subcortex is of secondary importance for higher-order cognition. While it is now recognized that subcortical regions can be involved in various cognitive domains, it remains unclear how they contribute to computations essential for higher-level cognitive processes such as endogenous attention and numerical cognition. Herein, we identify three models of subcortical–cortical relations in these cognitive processes: (i) subcortical regions are not involved in higher cognition; (ii) subcortical computations support elemental forms of higher cognition mainly in species without a developed cortex; and (iii) higher cognition depends on a whole-brain dynamic network, requiring integrated cortical and subcortical computations. Based on evolutionary theories and recent data, we propose the SEED hypothesis: the Subcortex is Essential for the Early Development of higher cognition. According to the five principles of the SEED hypothesis, subcortical computations are essential for the emergence of cognitive abilities that enable organisms to adapt to an ever-changing environment. We examine the implications of the SEED hypothesis from a multidisciplinary perspective to understand how the subcortex contributes to various forms of higher cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Origins and Development of Attention Networks)

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33 pages, 663 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach

by Katarzyna Bobrowicz and Jean-Pierre Thibaut

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060119 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3042

Abstract

Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the [...] Read more.

Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving. Full article

33 pages, 3277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Should Intelligence Tests Be Speeded or Unspeeded? A Brief Review of the Effects of Time Pressure on Response Processes and an Experimental Study with Raven’s Matrices

by Corentin Gonthier

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060120 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4209

Abstract

Intelligence tests are often performed under time constraints for practical reasons, but the effects of time pressure on reasoning performance are poorly understood. The first part of this work provides a brief review of major expected effects of time pressure, which includes forcing [...] Read more.

Intelligence tests are often performed under time constraints for practical reasons, but the effects of time pressure on reasoning performance are poorly understood. The first part of this work provides a brief review of major expected effects of time pressure, which includes forcing participants to skip items, convoking a mental speed factor, constraining response times, qualitatively altering cognitive processing, affecting anxiety and motivation, and interacting with individual differences. The second part presents data collected with Raven’s matrices under three conditions of speededness to provide further insight into the complex effects of time pressure, with three major findings. First, even mild time pressure (with enough time available for all participants to complete the task at a leisurely pace) induced speeding throughout the whole task, starting with the very first item, and participants sped up more than was actually required. Second, time pressure came with lower confidence and poorer strategy use and a substantial decrease of accuracy (d = 0.35), even when controlling for response time at the item level—indicating a detrimental effect on cognitive processing beyond speeding. Third, time pressure disproportionately reduced response times for difficult items and participants with high ability, working memory capacity, or need for cognition, although this did not differentially affect ability estimates. Overall, both the review and empirical sections show that the effects of time pressure go well beyond forcing participants to speed or skip the last few items and make even mild time constraints inadvisable when attempting to measure maximal performance, especially for high-performing samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Differential Psychology and Individual Differences in Intelligence)

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16 pages, 2463 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Skills: Age and Gender Differences at 12 to 19 Years Old

by Tommaso Feraco and Chiara Meneghetti

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060118 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4224

Abstract

Individuals use social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills to build and maintain social relationships, regulate emotions, and manage goal-directed behaviors. A promising integrative framework of SEB skills was recently proposed, showing that they matter for positive outcomes during adolescence. Nothing is known about [...] Read more.

Individuals use social, emotional, and behavioral (SEB) skills to build and maintain social relationships, regulate emotions, and manage goal-directed behaviors. A promising integrative framework of SEB skills was recently proposed, showing that they matter for positive outcomes during adolescence. Nothing is known about how and whether they differ between 12 and 19 years old and whether such differences depend on gender (males or females). Uncovering their age trajectories is fundamental because SEB skills are highly needed during this period of life. Educators, psychologists, and policymakers need to understand when, why, and how interventions concerning SEB skills should be proposed, potentially considering male and female profiles. To cover this gap, we cross-sectionally analyzed data from 4106 participants (2215 females, 12–19 years old). We highlighted age and gender differences in the five domains of SEB skills (self-management, innovation, cooperation, social engagement, and emotional resilience). Our results show that each SEB skill follows a specific age trend: emotional resilience and cooperation skills increase naturally between 12 and 19 years old, while innovation, social engagement, and self-management skills decline, especially between 12 and 16 years old, and grow later. The trajectories of self-management, social engagement, and emotional resilience skills also differ between males and females. Importantly, we detected declines in SEB skills (especially for social engagement and innovation skills) that can inform policies and interventions to sustain SEB skills in youths to favor their well-being and success in this crucial period. Full article

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18 pages, 792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metacognitive Cues, Working Memory, and Math Anxiety: The Regulated Attention in Mathematical Problem Solving (RAMPS) Framework

by Daniel A. Scheibe, Christopher A. Was, John Dunlosky and Clarissa A. Thompson

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060117 - 11 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4828

Abstract

Mathematical problem solving is a process involving metacognitive (e.g., judging progress), cognitive (e.g., working memory), and affective (e.g., math anxiety) factors. Recent research encourages researchers who study math cognition to consider the role that the interaction between metacognition and math anxiety plays in [...] Read more.

Mathematical problem solving is a process involving metacognitive (e.g., judging progress), cognitive (e.g., working memory), and affective (e.g., math anxiety) factors. Recent research encourages researchers who study math cognition to consider the role that the interaction between metacognition and math anxiety plays in mathematical problem solving. Problem solvers can make many metacognitive judgments during a math problem, ranging from global judgments such as, “Do I care to solve this problem?” to minor cue-based judgments such as, “Is my current strategy successful in making progress toward the correct solution?” Metacognitive monitoring can hinder accurate mathematical problem solving when the monitoring is task-irrelevant; however, task-relevant metacognitive experiences can lead to helpful control decisions in mathematical problem solving such as checking work, considering plausibility of an answer, and considering alternate strategies. Worry and negative thoughts (i.e., math anxiety) can both interfere with the accuracy of metacognitive experiences as cues in mathematical problem solving and lead to avoidance of metacognitive control decisions that could otherwise improve performance. The current paper briefly reviews and incorporates prior literature with current qualitative reports (n = 673) to establish a novel framework of regulated attention in mathematical problem solving (RAMPS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Working Memory and Metacognition)

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30 pages, 2551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Case Study of 21st Century Cognitive, Social and Emotional Competencies Using Online-Learning

by Haïfat Maoulida, Manisha Madhukar and Macarena-Paz Celume

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060116 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3648

Abstract

Based on the conceptualisation of the 21st Century Competencies Framework from the Center for Curriculum Redesign (CCR) we developed an online program to enable school-age students to increase their level on several social-emotional competencies. BE organized is a program that aims to help [...] Read more.

Based on the conceptualisation of the 21st Century Competencies Framework from the Center for Curriculum Redesign (CCR) we developed an online program to enable school-age students to increase their level on several social-emotional competencies. BE organized is a program that aims to help students to better organize themselves to be more efficient in today’s and tomorrow’s world. To do so, 12 individual sessions were designed to develop 4 out of the twelve 21st century competencies: Critical Thinking, Mindfulness, Resilience and Metacognition; collective sessions (action lab) to develop others such as Creativity. We used a mixed methodology, i.e., quantitative (two questionnaires) and qualitative (reflective questions) evaluation to test whether the targeted competencies have been developed during this program. Preliminary results (since it involves only a small number of participants, n = 27) partially confirm our hypotheses. Both qualitative and quantitative data show a development of critical thinking; the cross-sectional results are more mixed for the other three targeted competencies. Moreover, some other competencies, such as Creativity and Growth Mindset, seem to be developed during this program. However, it is difficult to determine whether it is the group and/or individual sessions that are responsible for these non-targeted competencies development. These results will be discussed in relation to the youth literature on 21st century competency and the broader literature on socio-emotional learning (SEL) and/or emotional intelligence (EI). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotional Intelligence and Creativity)

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22 pages, 1363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Mastery Motivation and Neurodevelopment of Young Children at High Risk for Developmental Delays

by Patricia Blasco, Sage Saxton, Lily Marie Gullion, Tun Zaw Oo, Stephen Amukune and Krisztián Józsa

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060115 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2567

Abstract

Young children’s mastery motivation and neurodevelopmental evaluation can contribute to overall early assessment for early intervention evaluation. At present, children born preterm (<37 weeks gestation) and with a low birth weight (LBW; <2500 g) are at increased risk of experiencing developmental delays and [...] Read more.

Young children’s mastery motivation and neurodevelopmental evaluation can contribute to overall early assessment for early intervention evaluation. At present, children born preterm (<37 weeks gestation) and with a low birth weight (LBW; <2500 g) are at increased risk of experiencing developmental delays and more nuanced cognitive and language challenges. The main objective of this exploratory study was to examine the connection between preterm children’s mastery motivation and their neurodevelopment, as well as to determine whether assessing mastery motivation can enhance assessment practices for early intervention (EI) programs. Parents of children born preterm completed the revised Dimensions of Mastery Motivation Questionnaire (DMQ18). Neurodevelopment was measured on the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (BSID-III). Results revealed significant correlations between DMQ18 and BSID-III measures. Multivariate analysis showed that infants and toddlers born with a very low birth weight (VLBW; <1500 g) scored significantly lower on the infant DMQ18 and the BSID-III measures. Regression analyses revealed that birth weight and home environment were significant predictors of the children’s eligibility for EI programs. Infants’ social persistence with other children, gross motor persistence, and mastery pleasure, as well as toddlers’ objective cognitive persistence, social persistence with adults, gross motor persistence, mastery pleasure, and negative reaction to frustration, were important markers for evidenced-based practices in EI programs. This study demonstrates the utility of the DMQ18 as a contributory assessment measure and the importance of birth weight and home environment in predicting EI enrollment. Full article

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17 pages, 384 KiB

Open AccessReview

Remote Assessment: Origins, Benefits, and Concerns

by Christy A. Mulligan and Justin L. Ayoub

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060114 - 9 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3834

Abstract

Although guidelines surrounding COVID-19 have relaxed and school-aged students are no longer required to wear masks and social distance in schools, we have become, as a nation and as a society, more comfortable working from home, learning online, and using technology as a [...] Read more.

Although guidelines surrounding COVID-19 have relaxed and school-aged students are no longer required to wear masks and social distance in schools, we have become, as a nation and as a society, more comfortable working from home, learning online, and using technology as a platform to communicate ubiquitously across ecological environments. In the school psychology community, we have also become more familiar with assessing students virtually, but at what cost? While there is research suggesting score equivalency between virtual and in-person assessment, score equivalency alone is not sufficient to validate a measure or an adaptation thereof. Furthermore, the majority of psychological measures on the market are normed for in-person administration. In this paper, we will not only review the pitfalls of reliability and validity but will also unpack the ethics of remote assessment as an equitable practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

12 pages, 780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Item Difficulty on Judgment of Confidence—A Cross-Level Moderated Mediation Model

by Yuke Zhou and Ning Jia

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060113 - 7 Jun 2023

Viewed by 2002

Abstract

The factors that influence metacognitive judgments often appear in combination, rather than in isolation. The multi-cue utilization model proposes that individuals often make use of multiple cues when making judgments. Previous studies have focused on the integration of intrinsic and extrinsic cues, while [...] Read more.

The factors that influence metacognitive judgments often appear in combination, rather than in isolation. The multi-cue utilization model proposes that individuals often make use of multiple cues when making judgments. Previous studies have focused on the integration of intrinsic and extrinsic cues, while the current investigation examines the integration and influence of intrinsic cues and mnemonic cues. Judgment of confidence is a common form of metacognitive judgment. In this study, 37 college students completed Raven’s Progressive Matrices and made judgments of confidence. We used the cross-level moderated mediation model to explore the impact of item difficulty on confidence judgments. Our results indicated that item difficulty negatively predicts the level of confidence. Item difficulty has an impact on the confidence evaluation by altering the processing fluency of intermediate variables. The joint effect of intrinsic cue item difficulty and mnemonic cue processing fluency influences confidence judgments. Additionally, we found that intelligence moderates the effect of difficulty on processing fluency across levels. Specifically, individuals with higher intelligence exhibited lower fluency on difficult tasks and higher fluency on simple tasks than individuals with lower intelligence. These findings expand on the multi-cue utilization model and integrate the influence mechanism of intrinsic and mnemonic cues on confidence judgments. Finally, we propose and verify a cross-level moderated mediation model that explains how item difficulty affects confidence judgments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

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41 pages, 3511 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Piquing Curiosity: Déjà vu-Like States Are Associated with Feelings of Curiosity and Information-Seeking Behaviors

by Katherine L. McNeely-White and Anne M. Cleary

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060112 - 5 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3077

Abstract

Curiosity during learning increases information-seeking behaviors and subsequent memory retrieval success, yet the mechanisms that drive curiosity and its accompanying information-seeking behaviors remain elusive. Hints throughout the literature suggest that curiosity may result from a metacognitive signal—possibly of closeness to a not yet [...] Read more.

Curiosity during learning increases information-seeking behaviors and subsequent memory retrieval success, yet the mechanisms that drive curiosity and its accompanying information-seeking behaviors remain elusive. Hints throughout the literature suggest that curiosity may result from a metacognitive signal—possibly of closeness to a not yet accessible piece of information—that in turn leads the experiencer to seek out additional information that will resolve a perceptibly small knowledge gap. We examined whether metacognition sensations thought to signal the likely presence of an as yet unretrieved relevant memory (such as familiarity or déjà vu) might be involved. Across two experiments, when cued recall failed, participants gave higher curiosity ratings during reported déjà vu (Experiment 1) or déjà entendu (Experiment 2), and these states were associated with increased expenditure of limited experimental resources to discover the answer. Participants also spent more time attempting to retrieve information and generated more incorrect information when experiencing these déjà vu-like states than when not. We propose that metacognition signaling of the possible presence of an as yet unretrieved but relevant memory may drive curiosity and prompt information-seeking that includes further search efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intersection of Metacognition and Intelligence)

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17 pages, 1212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Patterns of the Satisfaction and Frustration of Psychological Needs and Their Associations with Adolescent Students’ School Affect, Burnout, and Achievement

by Linjia Zhang and Yi Jiang

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060111 - 3 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

Based on self-determination theory and adopting a person-oriented approach, we aimed to investigate the latent profiles of adolescent students’ basic psychological needs and their associations with personal characteristics (gender, socioeconomic status) as well as school functioning (school affect, burnout, academic achievement). Latent profile [...] Read more.

Based on self-determination theory and adopting a person-oriented approach, we aimed to investigate the latent profiles of adolescent students’ basic psychological needs and their associations with personal characteristics (gender, socioeconomic status) as well as school functioning (school affect, burnout, academic achievement). Latent profile analyses based on a group of 1521 Chinese high school students identified four need profiles: low satisfaction/moderate frustration, high satisfaction/low frustration, average all, and moderate satisfaction/high frustration. Furthermore, there were significant differences in students’ school functioning among the four latent profiles. Specifically, students with moderate to high levels of need frustration were most likely to experience maladaptive school functioning, regardless of their need satisfaction level. Additionally, gender and socioeconomic status were significant predictors of profile membership. The findings of this study can assist educators in gaining a better understanding of the diverse patterns of psychological needs among students and help them to implement targeted interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Motivational, Affective Factors and Cognitive Factors in Learning)

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19 pages, 839 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceEssay

Within-Individual Variation in Cognitive Performance Is Not Noise: Why and How Cognitive Assessments Should Examine Within-Person Performance

by Arabella Charlotte Vaughan and Damian Patrick Birney

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060110 - 2 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2333

Abstract

Despite evidence that it exists, short-term within-individual variability in cognitive performance has largely been ignored as a meaningful component of human cognitive ability. In this article, we build a case for why this within-individual variability should not be viewed as mere measurement error [...] Read more.

Despite evidence that it exists, short-term within-individual variability in cognitive performance has largely been ignored as a meaningful component of human cognitive ability. In this article, we build a case for why this within-individual variability should not be viewed as mere measurement error and why it should be construed as a meaningful component of an individual’s cognitive abilities. We argue that in a demanding and rapidly changing modern world, between-individual analysis of single-occasion cognitive test scores does not account for the full range of within-individual cognitive performance variation that is implicated in successful typical cognitive performance. We propose that short-term repeated-measures paradigms (e.g., the experience sampling method (ESM)) be used to develop a process account of why individuals with similar cognitive ability scores differ in their actual performance in typical environments. Finally, we outline considerations for researchers when adapting this paradigm for cognitive assessment and present some initial findings from two studies in our lab that piloted the use of ESM to assess within-individual cognitive performance variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

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25 pages, 456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Who Wants to Enhance Their Cognitive Abilities? Potential Predictors of the Acceptance of Cognitive Enhancement

by Sandra Grinschgl, Anna-Lena Berdnik, Elisabeth Stehling, Gabriela Hofer and Aljoscha C. Neubauer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060109 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3758 | Correction

Abstract

With advances in new technologies, the topic of cognitive enhancement has been at the center of public debate in recent years. Various enhancement methods (e.g., brain stimulation, smart drugs, or working memory training) promise improvements in one’s cognitive abilities such as intelligence and [...] Read more.

With advances in new technologies, the topic of cognitive enhancement has been at the center of public debate in recent years. Various enhancement methods (e.g., brain stimulation, smart drugs, or working memory training) promise improvements in one’s cognitive abilities such as intelligence and memory. Although these methods have been rather ineffective so far, they are largely available to the general public and can be applied individually. As applying enhancement might be accompanied by certain risks, it is important to understand which individuals seek to enhance themselves. For instance, individuals’ intelligence, personality, and interests might predict their willingness to get enhanced. Thus, in a preregistered study, we asked 257 participants about their acceptance of various enhancement methods and tested predictors thereof, such as participants’ psychometrically measured and self-estimated intelligence. While both measured and self-estimated intelligence as well as participants’ implicit beliefs about intelligence, did not predict participants’ acceptance of enhancement; a younger age, higher interest in science-fiction, and (partially) higher openness as well as lower conscientiousness did. Thus, certain interests and personality traits might contribute to the willingness to enhance one’s cognition. Finally, we discuss the need for replication and argue for testing other potential predictors of the acceptance of cognitive enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Personality and Individual Differences)

22 pages, 459 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How to Continue? New Approaches to Investigating the Effects of Adaptive Math Learning Programs on Students’ Performance, Self-Concept, and Anxiety

by Anna Hilz, Karin Guill, Janina Roloff, Daniel Sommerhoff and Karen Aldrup

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060108 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

Math learning programs were expected to revolutionize students’ learning, but their effects so far have mostly been disappointing. Following the debate about why to continue research on math learning programs, we aimed to reformulate this question into how to continue this research. Investigations [...] Read more.

Math learning programs were expected to revolutionize students’ learning, but their effects so far have mostly been disappointing. Following the debate about why to continue research on math learning programs, we aimed to reformulate this question into how to continue this research. Investigations to date have neither considered a sufficiently wide set of outcome variables nor differentiated between performance measures (e.g., measuring addition and subtraction performance separately) and affective-motivational variables. Moreover, as students can only benefit from a program if they use it, researchers need to take practice behavior into account. Thus, we investigated whether the adaptive arithmetic learning program Math Garden fostered students’ addition and subtraction performance, their math self-concept, and a reduction of their math anxiety. We also investigated how practice behavior (practiced tasks/weeks) affected these outcomes. We used a randomized pretest-posttest control group design with 376 fifth-grade students in Germany. Students in the experimental condition practiced with Math Garden for 20.7 weeks and had an increase in math self-concept. The more subtraction tasks the students practiced, the more they improved their subtraction performance. We found no effects on math anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of providing a starting point for new directions in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay between Motivational, Affective Factors and Cognitive Factors in Learning)

19 pages, 1152 KiB

Open AccessReview

Reconciling Hard Skills and Soft Skills in a Common Framework: The Generic Skills Component Approach

by Jeremy Lamri and Todd Lubart

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060107 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 23606

Abstract

The distinction between hard and soft skills has long been a topic of debate in the field of psychology, with hard skills referring to technical or practical abilities, and soft skills relating to interpersonal capabilities. This paper explores the generic composition of any [...] Read more.

The distinction between hard and soft skills has long been a topic of debate in the field of psychology, with hard skills referring to technical or practical abilities, and soft skills relating to interpersonal capabilities. This paper explores the generic composition of any skill, proposing a unified framework that consists of five distinct components: knowledge, active cognition, conation, affection, and sensory-motor abilities. Building upon previous research and theories, such as Hilgard’s “Trilogy of Mind”, the generic skill components approach aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the structure and composition of any skill, whether hard or soft. By examining these components and their interactions, we can gain a more in-depth understanding of the nature of skills and their development. This approach has several potential applications and implications for various fields, including education, training, and workplace productivity. Further research is needed to refine and expand upon the generic skill components theory, exploring the interactions between the different components, as well as the impact of contextual factors on skill development and use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creativity, Intelligence, and Collaboration in 21st Century Education: An Interdisciplinary Challenge)

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15 pages, 674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are STEM Students Creative Thinkers?

by Christabel Borg Preca, Leonie Baldacchino, Marie Briguglio and Margaret Mangion

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060106 - 1 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3472

Abstract

Scholarly research has increasingly examined the role of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education, and that of creativity as a transversal skill. However, far fewer studies have investigated the relationship between the two, particularly in secondary-school contexts, and they have obtained inconsistent [...] Read more.

Scholarly research has increasingly examined the role of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education, and that of creativity as a transversal skill. However, far fewer studies have investigated the relationship between the two, particularly in secondary-school contexts, and they have obtained inconsistent results. This paper contributes to the literature by asking: To what extent is studying STEM associated with higher levels of creativity in a secondary-school context? The study utilises a pre-existing dataset gathered in Malta (EU) from some 400 students aged between 11 and 16 years old. It yields information on both the engagement in STEM (measured by exposure to STEM chosen by students as optional subjects, and the enjoyment of STEM considered by students to be their favourite subjects), as well as creativity levels (measured by Divergent Thinking performance on Alternate Uses Tests). Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive link between the two phenomena, lending support to the notion that STEM students tend to be more creative than other students. Using regression analysis, a model is estimated to identify the possible effects of engaging in STEM subjects on creativity, once the other co-determinants of creativity are controlled. The results indicate that both the exposure to STEM subject/s and enjoyment thereof significantly and positively predict creativity, even after controlling for the other possible determinants of creativity (such as age, gender, parental education, and participation in creative activities). These findings offer encouraging insights into 21st century education and for curriculum development as they suggest that, in addition to having value in their own right, STEM subjects can contribute to the development of creativity in young people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Creativity, Intelligence, and Collaboration in 21st Century Education: An Interdisciplinary Challenge)

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17 pages, 440 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

An Evaluative Review of Barriers to Critical Thinking in Educational and Real-World Settings

by Christopher P. Dwyer

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060105 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6872

Abstract

Though a wide array of definitions and conceptualisations of critical thinking have been offered in the past, further elaboration on some concepts is required, particularly with respect to various factors that may impede an individual’s application of critical thinking, such as in the [...] Read more.

Though a wide array of definitions and conceptualisations of critical thinking have been offered in the past, further elaboration on some concepts is required, particularly with respect to various factors that may impede an individual’s application of critical thinking, such as in the case of reflective judgment. These barriers include varying levels of epistemological engagement or understanding, issues pertaining to heuristic-based thinking and intuitive judgment, as well as emotional and biased thinking. The aim of this review is to discuss such barriers and evaluate their impact on critical thinking in light of perspectives from research in an effort to reinforce the ‘completeness’ of extant critical thinking frameworks and to enhance the potential benefits of implementation in real-world settings. Recommendations and implications for overcoming such barriers are also discussed and evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

28 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Individual Responses versus Aggregate Group-Level Results: Examining the Strength of Evidence for Growth Mindset Interventions on Academic Performance

by Mariel K. Barnett and Brooke N. Macnamara

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060104 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2987

Abstract

Mindset theory assumes that students’ beliefs about their intelligence—whether these are fixed or can grow—affects students’ academic performance. Based on this assumption, mindset theorists have developed growth mindset interventions to teach students that their intelligence or another attribute can be developed, with the [...] Read more.

Mindset theory assumes that students’ beliefs about their intelligence—whether these are fixed or can grow—affects students’ academic performance. Based on this assumption, mindset theorists have developed growth mindset interventions to teach students that their intelligence or another attribute can be developed, with the goal of improving academic outcomes. Though many papers have reported benefits from growth mindset interventions, others have reported no effects or even detrimental effects. Recently, proponents of mindset theory have called for a “heterogeneity revolution” to understand when growth mindset interventions are effective and when—and for whom—they are not. We sought to examine the whole picture of heterogeneity of treatment effects, including benefits, lack of impacts, and potential detriments of growth mindset interventions on academic performance. We used a recently proposed approach that considers persons as effect sizes; this approach can reveal individual-level heterogeneity often lost in aggregate data analyses. Across three papers, we find that this approach reveals substantial individual-level heterogeneity unobservable at the group level, with many students and teachers exhibiting mindset and performance outcomes that run counter to the authors’ claims. Understanding and reporting heterogeneity, including benefits, null effects, and detriments, will lead to better guidance for educators and policymakers considering the role of growth mindset interventions in schools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

14 pages, 366 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Why Should We Study the Foreign Language Effect: Debiasing through Affecting Metacognition?

by Michał Białek

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060103 - 30 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3889

Abstract

Debiasing is a method of improving people’s decisions by reducing their reliance on salient intuitions causing them to behave suboptimally or biasedly. However, many of the known debiasing techniques have limited effectiveness or can only remedy a one-shot decision, rather than having a [...] Read more.

Debiasing is a method of improving people’s decisions by reducing their reliance on salient intuitions causing them to behave suboptimally or biasedly. However, many of the known debiasing techniques have limited effectiveness or can only remedy a one-shot decision, rather than having a lasting impact. In this work, I focus on the role of metacognition in debiasing decision-making and discuss how it can be better understood through the lens of the foreign language effect. The foreign language effect suggests that using a foreign language can sometimes benefit people’s decision-making without providing them with additional information or instructions regarding the task. However, we do not fully understand how the foreign language effect works and its limitations. I conclude by urging scientists to research this effect with the hope of having a lasting positive impact on society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metareasoning: Theoretical and Methodological Developments)

12 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligence, Personality and Tolerance of Ambiguity

by Stephen Cuppello, Luke Treglown and Adrian Furnham

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060102 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4935

Abstract

In this study, 3836 adults completed a personality test (the HPTI) and a multidimensional intelligence test (GIA). Two prominent theories that link personality traits to intelligence (compensation and investment) were tested. There were more sex differences in the personality traits than in the [...] Read more.

In this study, 3836 adults completed a personality test (the HPTI) and a multidimensional intelligence test (GIA). Two prominent theories that link personality traits to intelligence (compensation and investment) were tested. There were more sex differences in the personality traits than in the IQ scores. Correlational and regression analyses results provided little evidence for either theory but pointed to the role of tolerance of ambiguity as a consistently significant, positive correlate of IQ at both the facet and domain levels. The role of this neglected trait is discussed. Limitations of various aspects of this study and its implications are considered. Full article

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18 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Forward Effect of Delayed Judgments of Learning Is Influenced by Difficulty in Memory and Category Learning

by Xun Wang, Xinyue Liu, Luyao Chen, Kaiqi Feng, Qun Ye and Haoliang Zhu

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060101 - 25 May 2023

Viewed by 2316

Abstract

Delayed judgment of learning (JOL) is a widely used metacognitive monitoring strategy that can also enhance learning outcomes. However, the potential benefits of delayed JOL on subsequent learning of new material, known as the forward effect of delayed JOL, and its stability and [...] Read more.

Delayed judgment of learning (JOL) is a widely used metacognitive monitoring strategy that can also enhance learning outcomes. However, the potential benefits of delayed JOL on subsequent learning of new material, known as the forward effect of delayed JOL, and its stability and underlying mechanisms have yet to be fully explored. In this study, we investigated the forward effect of delayed JOL using previously unexamined word pair materials and explored the boundary conditions of this effect by manipulating the difficulty of the materials. We also examined this effect within the context of category learning. Our findings demonstrate that delayed JOL significantly enhanced the retention of new information (Experiment 1A), while the forward effect of the delayed JOL occurred only for material with a certain degree of difficulty rather than for easy material (Experiment 1B). These findings were extended and replicated using category learning (Experiment 2). These results suggest that delayed JOL can be used as a preparation strategy for subsequent learning, particularly when faced with challenging materials. Our study provides novel insights into the potential benefits and limitations of delayed JOL and contributes to our understanding of the underlying mechanisms that govern metacognitive monitoring and learning strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

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15 pages, 1610 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

When Cognitive Reflection Leads to Less Overall but More Systematic Judgment Bias: The Case of the Base Rates Fallacy

by Mário B. Ferreira, Hugo Assunção and Amanda Seruti

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060100 - 24 May 2023

Viewed by 1917

Abstract

Although widely used in the judgment under uncertainty literature, the so-called Lawyer–Engineer problem does not have a Bayesian solution because the base rates typically oppose qualitative stereotypical information, which has an undefined diagnostic value. We propose an experimental paradigm that elicits participants’ subjective [...] Read more.

Although widely used in the judgment under uncertainty literature, the so-called Lawyer–Engineer problem does not have a Bayesian solution because the base rates typically oppose qualitative stereotypical information, which has an undefined diagnostic value. We propose an experimental paradigm that elicits participants’ subjective estimates of the diagnosticity of stereotypical information and allows us to investigate the degree to which participants are able to integrate both sources of information (base rates and stereotypical descriptions) according to the Bayesian rule. This paradigm was used to test the hypothesis that the responses (probability estimates) to the Lawyer–Engineer problem from more rational individuals deviate from normative Bayesian solutions in a way that shows smaller but more systematic bias. The results further suggest that the estimates of less rational participants are noisier (less reliable) but may be more accurate when aggregated across several problems. Full article

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16 pages, 1668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Moderating Role of Creative Mindset in the Effect of Metacognitive Experience on Insight Problem Solving

by Xiaoyu Jia, Ping Li, Qunlin Chen and Weijian Li

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060099 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1931

Abstract

Metacognitive experience, measured by processing fluency, contributes to divergent thinking performance; however, whether it exhibits varying effects on insight problem-solving remains unknown. Additionally, as individuals’ interpretation of metacognitive experience is influenced by their creative mindset, whether creative mindset plays a role in the [...] Read more.

Metacognitive experience, measured by processing fluency, contributes to divergent thinking performance; however, whether it exhibits varying effects on insight problem-solving remains unknown. Additionally, as individuals’ interpretation of metacognitive experience is influenced by their creative mindset, whether creative mindset plays a role in the relationship between metacognitive experience and insight problem-solving is another issue. In Experiment 1, a Chinese logogriph task was used to investigate insight problem-solving performance. The font style of logogriphs (easy versus difficult) was used to alter the ease of processing. The results showed that individuals had lower performance accuracy for logogriphs presented in difficult font styles, suggesting the negative effect of metacognitive disfluency experience on logogriph solving. In Experiment 2, different creative mindsets (entity versus incremental) were activated in individuals via prime manipulation. Individuals with an incremental creative mindset had a significantly higher performance accuracy and longer reaction time for logogriphs presented in difficult font styles than individuals with an entity creative mindset, suggesting that an incremental creative mindset might counteract the negative effect of metacognitive disfluency experience on logogriphs solving. These findings suggest that metacognitive disfluency experience has a negative effect on insight problem-solving and that a creative mindset moderated this effect. Full article

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8 pages, 1375 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

The Evolution and Future Development of Attention Networks

by Michael I Posner

J. Intell. 2023, 11(6), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence11060098 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2499

Abstract

The goal of this paper is to examine how the development of attention networks has left many important issues unsolved and to propose possible directions for solving them by combining human and animal studies. The paper starts with evidence from citation mapping that [...] Read more.

The goal of this paper is to examine how the development of attention networks has left many important issues unsolved and to propose possible directions for solving them by combining human and animal studies. The paper starts with evidence from citation mapping that indicates attention has played a central role in integrating cognitive and neural studies into Cognitive Neuroscience. The integration of the fields depends in part upon similarities and differences in performance over a wide variety of animals. In the case of exogenous orienting of attention primates, rodents and humans are quite similar, but this is not so with executive control. In humans, attention networks continue to develop at different rates during infancy and childhood and into adulthood. From age four on, the Attention Network Test (ANT) allows measurement of individual differences in the alerting, orienting and executive networks. Overt and covert orienting do overlap in their anatomy, but there is evidence of some degree of functional independence at the cellular level. The attention networks frequently work together with sensory, memory and other networks. Integration of animal and human studies may be advanced by examining common genes involved in individual attention networks or their integration with other brain networks. Attention networks involve widely scattered computation nodes in different brain areas, both cortical and subcortical. Future studies need to attend to the white matter that connects them and the direction of information flow during task performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Origins and Development of Attention Networks)

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J. Intell., Volume 11, Issue 6 (June 2023) – 30 articles

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