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Infrastructures
Volume 10
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Infrastructures, Volume 10, Issue 1 (January 2025) – 24 articles

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14 pages, 4669 KiB  
Article
Cool Mix Asphalt—Redefining Warm Mix Asphalt with Implementations in Korea, Italy and Vietnam
by Hosin (David) Lee, Lan Ngoc Nguyen, Elena Sturlini and Young-ik Kim
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010024 - 20 Jan 2025
Viewed by 667
Abstract
During the past decades, to minimize Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and asphalt fumes during the asphalt mix production and construction process, various warm mix asphalt (WMA) additives have been developed and successfully applied. Currently, as production of WMA reaches close to that of [...] Read more.
During the past decades, to minimize Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and asphalt fumes during the asphalt mix production and construction process, various warm mix asphalt (WMA) additives have been developed and successfully applied. Currently, as production of WMA reaches close to that of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) in the US, the varied definition of WMA is questioned in this paper. Not only are the temperature reduction ranges from HMA defined by various studies too wide, but also the minimum threshold to be classified as WMA is often too small. In this paper, a new category of “Cool Mix Asphalt (CMA)” is proposed to distinguish it from the newly defined WMA based not on the reduction amount from HMA temperature but its actual production temperature. It is proposed that HMA should be defined as asphalt mixtures produced at temperatures between 140 and 160 °C (between 284 and 320 °F), WMA as production temperatures between 120 and 140 °C (between 248 and 284 °F), and CMA as production temperatures between 100 and 120 °C (212 to 248 °F). By defining their actual production temperatures rather than reduction temperatures from HMA, WMA and CMA will be clearly defined. This paper then presents a new Polymer Cool Mix Asphalt (PCMA) additive called “Zero-M”, which was developed to lower the mixing temperature to around 110 °C (203 °F). Recently, test sections using Zero-M were successfully constructed in Korea, Italy and Vietnam, and their laboratory test results of field cores and production and construction experiences are described in this paper. The chemistry and compositions of Zero-M are discussed along with its mechanism to significantly lower the production temperature of PCMA. All test sections constructed in three countries met the in-place compaction density requirements of their respective countries, which were close to or higher than those of the control HMA test sections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cool Mix Asphalt: Redefining Warm Mix Asphalt)
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19 pages, 1963 KiB  
Article
Dual Model for International Roughness Index Classification and Prediction
by Noelia Molinero-Pérez, Laura Montalbán-Domingo, Amalia Sanz-Benlloch and Tatiana García-Segura
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010023 - 18 Jan 2025
Viewed by 407
Abstract
Existing models for predicting the international roughness index (IRI) of a road surface often lack adaptability, struggling to accurately reflect variations in climate, traffic, and pavement distresses—factors critical for effective and sustainable maintenance. This study presents a novel dual-model approach that integrates pavement [...] Read more.
Existing models for predicting the international roughness index (IRI) of a road surface often lack adaptability, struggling to accurately reflect variations in climate, traffic, and pavement distresses—factors critical for effective and sustainable maintenance. This study presents a novel dual-model approach that integrates pavement condition index (PCI), pavement distress types, climatic, and traffic data to improve IRI prediction. Using data from the Long-Term Pavement Performance database, a dual-model approach was developed: pavements were classified into groups based on key factors, and tailored regression models were subsequently applied within each group. The model exhibits good predictive accuracy, with R2 values of 0.62, 0.72, and 0.82 for the individual groups. Furthermore, the validation results (R2 = 0.89) confirm that the combination of logistic regression and linear regression enhances the precision of IRI value predictions. This approach enhances adaptability and practicality, offering a versatile tool for estimating IRI under diverse conditions. The proposed methodology has the potential to support more effective, data-driven decisions in pavement maintenance, fostering sustainability and cost efficiency. Full article
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25 pages, 2378 KiB  
Article
Determining the Location of the National Repository of Italian Radioactive Waste: A Multi-Risk Analysis Approach
by Angelo Anelli, Paolo Harabaglia and Marco Vona
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010022 - 17 Jan 2025
Viewed by 568
Abstract
Following the 1987 referendums, the Italian government stopped its nuclear energy production. Radioactive waste produced by existing nuclear facilities and the very-low- and low-level radioactive waste due to other activities (e.g., healthcare) require the construction of a National Repository. To this end, the [...] Read more.
Following the 1987 referendums, the Italian government stopped its nuclear energy production. Radioactive waste produced by existing nuclear facilities and the very-low- and low-level radioactive waste due to other activities (e.g., healthcare) require the construction of a National Repository. To this end, the National Map of Suitable Areas (CNAI), through which the optimal site to host the National Repository would be identified, was published on 23 December 2023. Over the years, the possible location of the National Repository has been repeatedly contested by the citizens of the territories concerned. However, the need to identify a site and build the National Repository is unavoidable. This study proposes an approach based on multi-criteria analysis. The approach represents an alternative model useful for enriching the public debate with additional information and criteria and is also consistent with the local needs of the communities involved. The proposed approach compares the sites proposed in the CNAI by analyzing their main short- and long-term risks, namely their seismic, transport-related and socio-economic risks. The obtained results show a possible different priority order of the CNAI sites. They highlight the possibility of identifying the optimal site mainly via using site safety criteria assessed throughout the entire service life of the infrastructures to be built and also consider the possible short-term economic advantages deriving from the construction of the National Repository. Full article
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26 pages, 5881 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Heat-Damaged RC Slender Spiral Columns Repaired with CFRP Rope
by Ahmed M. Ashteyat and Ala’ Taleb Obaidat
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010021 - 16 Jan 2025
Viewed by 387
Abstract
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is widely used in construction to extend the service life of building structures through the repair and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete (RC) columns. However, due to the difficulty of wrapping CFRP strips spirally around an RC spiral column, a [...] Read more.
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is widely used in construction to extend the service life of building structures through the repair and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete (RC) columns. However, due to the difficulty of wrapping CFRP strips spirally around an RC spiral column, a flexible CFRP rope material has been developed as an alternative, which will be used as a spiral hoop for repairing circular columns. In this study, 12 RC spiral columns were constructed and tested under concentric load, considering slenderness ratio and spacing between CFRP rope and heat temperature, to investigate the RC spiral column’s behavior. These RC columns had three slenderness ratios with 17.75, 26.65, and 33.34 and were exposed to heat temperature of 600 °C for 3 h, then tested under compression. The results showed that as the slenderness ratio increases, the load capacity of RC spiral column decreases. The repaired specimens with a CFRP rope-with-slenderness ratio of 33.35 and 26.65 exhibited an increase in strength about (36% to 97%) and (30% to 88%), respectively. In all repaired specimens with a CFRP rope-of-slenderness ratio of 26.65 and 33.35, they showed a slight increase in ductility of about 2% compared with the heated specimen. However, they did not recover the ductility of the unheated specimen. Also, the specimens with a low slenderness ratio and repaired with CFRP at 300 mm showed a greater decrease in toughness and modulus of elasticity than in the specimens with a high slenderness ratio and repaired with CFRP at 150 mm. The repaired specimens with rope at 150 mm of spacing exhibited an increase in load capacity more than the repaired specimen with rope at 300 mm of spacing and reached a load capacity that was greater than what the unheated specimen reached in all groups. It can be shown that there is a significant effect of temperature on the behaviour of the RC spiral column. Adding rope at 300 mm of spacing restores the capacity and allows for a greater reach than the unheated load capacity of the specimens (about 4% to 11%). However, the specimens repaired with rope at 150 mm increased the load capacity by approximately 27.4% to 36.8% more than the unheated specimens in each group. Full article
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20 pages, 2491 KiB  
Article
Quantifying Anisotropic Properties of Old–New Concrete Interfaces Using X-Ray Computed Tomography and Homogenization
by Guanming Zhang and Yang Lu
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010020 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 519
Abstract
The interface between old and new concrete is a critical component in many construction practices, including concrete pavements, bridge decks, hydraulic dams, and buildings undergoing rehabilitation. Despite various treatments to enhance bonding, this interface often remains a weak layer that compromises overall structural [...] Read more.
The interface between old and new concrete is a critical component in many construction practices, including concrete pavements, bridge decks, hydraulic dams, and buildings undergoing rehabilitation. Despite various treatments to enhance bonding, this interface often remains a weak layer that compromises overall structural performance. Traditional design methods typically oversimplify the interface as a homogeneous or empirically adjusted factor, resulting in significant uncertainties. This paper introduces a novel framework for quantifying the anisotropic properties of old–new concrete interfaces using X-ray computed tomography (CT) and finite element-based numerical homogenization. The elastic coefficient matrix reveals that specimens away from the interface exhibit higher values in both normal and shear directions, with normal direction values averaging 33.15% higher and shear direction values 39.96% higher than those at the interface. A total of 10 sampling units along the interface were collected and analyzed to identify the “weakest vectors” in normal and shear directions. The “weakest vectors” at the interface show consistent orientations with an average cosine similarity of 0.62, compared with an average cosine similarity of 0.23 at the non-interface, which demonstrates directional features. Conversely, the result of average cosine similarity at the interface shows randomness that originates from the anisotropy of materials. The average angle between normal and shear stresses was found to be 88.64°, indicating a predominantly orthogonal relationship, though local stress distributions introduced slight deviations. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the anisotropic properties of old–new concrete interfaces to improve design and rehabilitation practices in concrete and structural engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Concrete Applications)
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14 pages, 2027 KiB  
Article
Simulation Analysis of an ETC Monitoring and Imaging Supplementary Lighting Device for Freeways
by Shijian Yin, Zhiyong Ma, Xiaojie Luo and Huayang Yu
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010019 - 14 Jan 2025
Viewed by 350
Abstract
To address the glare issues caused by highway ETC gantry monitoring and imaging illumination devices, this paper first investigates the mechanism of disability glare and derives the formula for the glare threshold increment. Subsequently, using the glare increment threshold as the evaluation metric [...] Read more.
To address the glare issues caused by highway ETC gantry monitoring and imaging illumination devices, this paper first investigates the mechanism of disability glare and derives the formula for the glare threshold increment. Subsequently, using the glare increment threshold as the evaluation metric and incorporating the current regulatory requirements for illumination devices, a simulation model for ETC gantry monitoring and imaging illumination devices was developed. A single-variable control method was applied to conduct simulation experiments on the glare problems from multiple perspectives (e.g., different standard illuminance levels, various luminous areas, varying installation heights, and different lateral offsets), and the glare level was analyzed using the glare increment threshold method. It was found that when the lateral offset of the illumination device reached 4 m, the glare increment threshold decreased by more than 50%. Additionally, it is recommended that the illuminance of the illumination device should be greater than 15 lx. Full article
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24 pages, 10210 KiB  
Article
Collision Milling of Oil Shale Ash as Constituent Pretreatment in Concrete 3D Printing
by Lucija Hanžič, Mateja Štefančič, Katarina Šter, Vesna Zalar Serjun, Māris Šinka, Alise Sapata, Genādijs Šahmenko, Evaldas Šerelis, Baiba Migliniece and Lidija Korat Bensa
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010018 - 13 Jan 2025
Viewed by 596
Abstract
Concrete is an essential construction material, and infrastructures, such as bridges, tunnels, and power plants, consume large quantities of it. Future infrastructure demands and sustainability issues necessitate the adoption of non-conventional supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). At the same time, global labor shortages are [...] Read more.
Concrete is an essential construction material, and infrastructures, such as bridges, tunnels, and power plants, consume large quantities of it. Future infrastructure demands and sustainability issues necessitate the adoption of non-conventional supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). At the same time, global labor shortages are compelling the conservative construction sector to implement autonomous and digital fabrication methods, such as 3D printing. This paper thus investigates the feasibility of using oil shale ash (OSA) as an SCM in concrete suitable for 3D printing, and collision milling is examined as a possible ash pretreatment. OSA from four different sources was collected and analyzed for its physical, chemical, and mineralogical composition. Concrete formulations containing ash were tested for mechanical performance, and the two best-performing formulations were assessed for printability. It was found that ash extracted from flue gases by the novel integrated desulfurizer has the greatest potential as an SCM due to globular particles that contain β-calcium silicate. The 56-day compression strength of concrete containing this type of ash is ~60 MPa, the same as in the reference composition. Overall, collision milling is effective in reducing the size of particles larger than 10 μm but does not seem beneficial for ash extracted from flue gasses. However, milling bottom ash may unlock its potential as an SCM, with the optimal milling frequency being ~100 Hz. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Concrete Applications)
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25 pages, 1049 KiB  
Review
Comprehensive Analysis of Sustainability Rating Systems for Road Infrastructure
by Rajab Ali Mehraban, Lucia Tsantilis, Pier Paolo Riviera and Ezio Santagata
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010017 - 11 Jan 2025
Viewed by 620
Abstract
Sustainability rating systems (SRSs) have emerged as indispensable frameworks for advancing the environmental, social, and economic sustainability of road infrastructure. Despite their growing adoption, their integration as authoritative tools within infrastructure planning and development remains limited. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of [...] Read more.
Sustainability rating systems (SRSs) have emerged as indispensable frameworks for advancing the environmental, social, and economic sustainability of road infrastructure. Despite their growing adoption, their integration as authoritative tools within infrastructure planning and development remains limited. This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of eight leading SRSs—CEEQUAL, Greenroads, GreenLITES, GreenPave, I-LAST, INVEST, BE2ST-in-Highways, and Envision—focusing on their structural frameworks, criteria weightings, adherence to the three pillars of sustainability, and alignment with international benchmarks such as ISO, EN, and ASTM standards. By considering the three pillars of sustainability, the analysis of the eight SRSs reveals a disproportionate focus on environmental well-being (43%) and social well-being (42%), with economic well-being receiving minimal emphasis (15%). Furthermore, this study identifies notable deficiencies in the integration of critical international standards, including ISO, EN, and ASTM, which constrains the comprehensiveness and global applicability of these frameworks. Key findings suggest that the current SRSs inadequately address the principles of a circular economy, risk management, and social equity, highlighting areas for methodological enhancement. This review offers critical insights for researchers, policy makers, and practitioners seeking to refine sustainability rating systems for road infrastructure. By consolidating existing knowledge and proposing methodological advancements, this study contributes to the evolution of SRSs into comprehensive, globally relevant tools for sustainable infrastructure development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pavement Design and Pavement Management)
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1 pages, 128 KiB  
Retraction
RETRACTED: Xu et al. Simplicial Complex-Enhanced Manifold Embedding of Spatiotemporal Data for Structural Health Monitoring. Infrastructures 2023, 8, 46
by Nan Xu, Zhiming Zhang and Yongming Liu
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010016 - 10 Jan 2025
Viewed by 281
Abstract
The journal retracts the article, “Simplicial Complex-Enhanced Manifold Embedding of Spatiotemporal Data for Structural Health Monitoring” [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructures)
13 pages, 3709 KiB  
Article
Comparing the Saturation Flow Rate on the Exit Lane Between Urban Multilane Roundabouts and Urban Signalized Intersections Through Field Data
by Nawaf Mohamed Alshabibi
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010015 - 9 Jan 2025
Viewed by 397
Abstract
Urban multilane roundabouts and signalized intersections are two major roadway devices used for controlling and managing traffic flow. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the saturation flow rate between urban multilane roundabouts and multilane signalized intersections using field data from the Dammam [...] Read more.
Urban multilane roundabouts and signalized intersections are two major roadway devices used for controlling and managing traffic flow. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the saturation flow rate between urban multilane roundabouts and multilane signalized intersections using field data from the Dammam Metropolitan Area (DMA) in Saudi Arabia. The data of this study were collected at four roundabouts and four signalized intersections in Dammam metropolitan area (DMA), Saudi Arabia. A total of 7028 saturation headways at the roundabouts and 2626 saturation headways at the signalized intersections were included. The results indicated that the signalized intersections had a higher saturation flow rate at the exit lane than the roundabouts at about 1046 vehicles per hour. These findings emphasize that signalized intersections outperform roundabouts in terms of the vehicular movement rate during green lights. Moreover, when the light is green, it takes 1.82 s for a car to move through the middle lane of a traffic light intersection. This study draws a unique connection between speed fluctuations in roundabouts with energy consumption, concluding how vehicles consume more energy this way. Thus, single-lane roundabouts are recommended for optimal traffic flow management in all directions. Full article
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14 pages, 4082 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Production Techniques on Pore Size Distribution in High-Strength Foam Concrete
by Slava Markin, Genadijs Sahmenko, Aleksandrs Korjakins and Viktor Mechtcherine
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010014 - 9 Jan 2025
Viewed by 464
Abstract
This study examined the impact of various foam concrete production techniques on pore size distribution and its water absorption properties. Techniques such as the use of a cavitation disintegrator and a turbulent mixer were employed to produce foam concrete. Six foam concrete compositions, [...] Read more.
This study examined the impact of various foam concrete production techniques on pore size distribution and its water absorption properties. Techniques such as the use of a cavitation disintegrator and a turbulent mixer were employed to produce foam concrete. Six foam concrete compositions, with dry densities ranging from 820 to 1480 kg/m3 and compressive strength up to 47 MPa, were prepared. A novel method for digital image correlation was applied to analyse the pore size distribution within the foam concrete specimens. The manufactured foam concrete specimens’ porosity and water absorption indices were determined. The experimental results, including compression strength and water absorption, indicated that the production technique significantly affects the pore size distribution in foam concrete, impacting its mechanical and durability properties. Compressive strength was assessed at curing intervals of 7, 28, and 180 days. Cavitation technology was found to promote the formation of a finer porous structure in foam concrete, resulting in enhanced strength properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions for Concrete Applications)
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22 pages, 12631 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Damage to Existing Buildings Induced by Tunnel Excavation
by Ekin Evrim Laçin Akşit and Kadir Güler
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010013 - 9 Jan 2025
Viewed by 432
Abstract
This study emphasizes the significance of employing systematic approaches and precise modeling techniques to evaluate potential building damage from metro tunnel excavations. Mair et al. (1996) proposed a three-stage assessment framework comprising preliminary assessment, second-stage assessment, and detailed assessment to analyze the damage [...] Read more.
This study emphasizes the significance of employing systematic approaches and precise modeling techniques to evaluate potential building damage from metro tunnel excavations. Mair et al. (1996) proposed a three-stage assessment framework comprising preliminary assessment, second-stage assessment, and detailed assessment to analyze the damage to buildings inflicted by tunnel excavation. For preliminary and second-stage assessments, parametric calculation methods have been examined; however, detailed assessment requires using a 3D numerical analysis model. This study selected a school building, to examine this three-stage assessment method. For the preliminary and second stage assessments, a “greenfield” analysis approach was utilized using the PLAXIS 2D to determine the ground settlement curve caused by tunnel excavation. Based on the obtained settlement values, the evaluation was conducted using the boundary conditions proposed by Mair et al. (1996). Since the obtained settlement values did not meet the proposed boundary conditions, a three-dimensional finite element model was generated using the SAP2000 analysis program. This paper offers practical guidance on the nonlinear modeling principles of structural elements during the detailed assessment of a building subjected to vertical settlement. It provides a framework for assessing buildings near tunnel construction sites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Infrastructures and Structural Engineering)
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25 pages, 7723 KiB  
Article
Multi-Criteria Assessment of Flood Risk on Railroads Using a Machine Learning Approach: A Case Study of Railroads in Minas Gerais
by Fernanda Oliveira de Sousa, Victor Andre Ariza Flores, Christhian Santana Cunha, Sandra Oda and Hostilio Xavier Ratton Neto
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010012 - 8 Jan 2025
Viewed by 852
Abstract
In a climate change scenario where extreme precipitation events occur more frequently and intensely, risk assessment plays a critical role in ensuring the safety and operational efficiency of facilities. This case study uses a combination of the multi-criteria analysis approach and hydrological studies [...] Read more.
In a climate change scenario where extreme precipitation events occur more frequently and intensely, risk assessment plays a critical role in ensuring the safety and operational efficiency of facilities. This case study uses a combination of the multi-criteria analysis approach and hydrological studies that use machine learning algorithms to simulate new rainfall events in order to estimate the risk of flooding on railroads. Risk variables, including terrain, drainage capability, accumulated flow, and land use and land cover, will be weighed using the multicriteria approach. A methodical evaluation of the most vulnerable locations on the railroad network will be possible thanks to the analysis of these parameters based on the geographic information system (GIS) approach. In the meantime, historical precipitation, flow, and hydrological balance data will be used to calibrate and validate hydrological models. The database required for the machine learning model can be created with these hydrological data. The research regions are situated in the densely rail-networked state of Minas Gerais. The geographical and climatic diversity of Minas Gerais makes it the perfect place to test and validate the suggested approaches. The models evaluated included linear regression, random forest, decision tree, and support vector machines. Among the evaluated models, Linear Regression emerged as the best-performing model with an R2 value of 0.999998, a mean squared error (MSE) of 0.018672, and a low tendency to overfitting (0.000011). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Railway Infrastructure Resilience: Addressing Challenges and Ensuring Sustainability)
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24 pages, 10353 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Influence of Drying Shrinkage on Cracking Resistance of Massive Self-Compacting Concrete with Blast Furnace Slag Using Finite Element Method
by Benson Kipkemboi and Shingo Miyazawa
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010011 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 579
Abstract
The application of self-compacting concrete in massive structures is still low due to the perceived high cracking tendency associated with high shrinkage and heat of cement hydration. This conclusion is from short-term research work of up to 3 months after casting. The purpose [...] Read more.
The application of self-compacting concrete in massive structures is still low due to the perceived high cracking tendency associated with high shrinkage and heat of cement hydration. This conclusion is from short-term research work of up to 3 months after casting. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the influence of drying shrinkage on the cracking resistance of massive self-compacting concrete with blast furnace slag using a three-dimensional finite element method of analysis (3D FEM). The restraint stress experiment results of the self-compacting concrete beam under drying conditions are compared with those of similar concrete beam models obtained from 3D FEM analysis. The value of the reduction coefficient for Young’s modulus of elasticity was proposed to consider the effect of stress relaxation due to creep in concrete. By using the proposed value of the reduction coefficient, thermal stress analysis was performed on a 1 m thick massive concrete wall member, and the cracking resistance of self-compacting concrete with different replacement ratios of blast furnace slag is discussed. By using the proposed reduction coefficient to evaluate concrete stress due to drying, the accuracy of thermal stress analysis results can be improved to a marginal error of ±15% from the experiment results. Also, the low-temperature rise caused by the high replacement ratio of blast furnace slag at 50% and 70%, respectively, contributed to improved cracking resistance. Furthermore, the optimum blast furnace slag replacement for better cracking resistance depends on the expected exposure condition of the structure. Full article
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17 pages, 3001 KiB  
Article
LSTM+MA: A Time-Series Model for Predicting Pavement IRI
by Tianjie Zhang, Alex Smith, Huachun Zhai and Yang Lu
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010010 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 419
Abstract
The accurate prediction of pavement performance is essential for transportation administration or management to appropriately allocate resources road maintenance and upkeep. The international roughness index (IRI) is one of the most commonly used pavement performance indicators to reflect the surface roughness. However, the [...] Read more.
The accurate prediction of pavement performance is essential for transportation administration or management to appropriately allocate resources road maintenance and upkeep. The international roughness index (IRI) is one of the most commonly used pavement performance indicators to reflect the surface roughness. However, the existing research on IRI prediction mainly focuses on using linear regression or traditional machine learning, which cannot take into account the historical effects of IRI caused by climate, traffic, pavement construction and intermittent maintenance. In this work, a long short-term memory (LSTM)-based model, LSTM+MA, is proposed to predict the IRI of pavements using the time-series data extracted from the long-term pavement performance (LTPP) dataset. Effective preprocessing methods and hyperparameter fine-tuning are selected to improve the accuracy of the model. The performance of the LSTM+MA is compared with other state-of-the-art models, including logistic regressor (LR), support vector regressor (SVR), random forest (RF), K-nearest-neighbor regressor (KNR), fully connected neural network (FNN), XGBoost (XGB), recurrent neural network (RNN) and LSTM. The results show that selected preprocessing methods can help the model learn quickly from the data and reach high accuracy in small epochs. Also, it shows that the proposed LSTM+MA model significantly outperforms other models, with an R2 of 0.965 and a mean square error (MSE) of 0.030 in the test datasets. Moreover, an overfitting score is proposed in this work to represent the severity degree of the overfitting problem, and it shows that the proposed model does not suffer severely from overfitting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research in Geotechnics for Sustainable Infrastructure Development)
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25 pages, 5012 KiB  
Review
Structure-to-Human Interaction (H2SI): Pedestrian Response to Oscillating Footbridges and Considerations on Their Structural Control and Health Monitoring
by Aurora Caloni, Matteo Morfino, Marco Civera and Cecilia Surace
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010009 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 512
Abstract
This review paper investigates the current state of research on structure-to-human interaction (S2HI) in the monitoring and control of cyclo-pedestrian footbridges, focusing specifically on the biodynamic effects of oscillations on pedestrians. Its aim is, therefore, twofold: In the first half, it examines the [...] Read more.
This review paper investigates the current state of research on structure-to-human interaction (S2HI) in the monitoring and control of cyclo-pedestrian footbridges, focusing specifically on the biodynamic effects of oscillations on pedestrians. Its aim is, therefore, twofold: In the first half, it examines the limited but evolving understanding of human gait responses to vertical and horizontal vibrations at frequencies and amplitudes characteristic of footbridge dynamics. The second half includes a detailed analysis of various modelling strategies for simulating pedestrian and crowd dynamics, emphasising the movements and stationary behaviours induced by structural vibrations. The aim is to highlight the strengths and limitations of these modelling approaches, particularly their capability to incorporate biomechanical factors in pedestrian responses. The research findings indicate that existing studies predominantly focus on human-to-structure interaction (HSI), often neglecting the reciprocal effects of S2HI, with many results in the literature failing to adequately address the biomechanics of single pedestrians or crowds experiencing structural vibrations on cyclo-pedestrian bridges. This gap underscores the need for more precise and comprehensive studies in the field to improve the understanding of dynamic interactions between single or multiple walking individuals and footbridge vibrations, especially for vulnerable and elderly people with limited mobility. Furthermore, considerations regarding the impact of Structural Control and Health Monitoring to alleviate these issues are briefly discussed, highlighting the potential to optimise footbridge performance in terms of pedestrian comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Health Monitoring in Bridge Engineering)
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20 pages, 7783 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Bolted Steel T-Stub Connection Based on Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis Using Genetic Algorithm
by Péter Grubits, Tamás Balogh and Majid Movahedi Rad
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010008 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 555
Abstract
The equivalent T-stub method is frequently employed in infrastructure projects, including bridge engineering, to simplify bolted connection analysis. However, steel connections remain inherently complex due to nonlinear behavior, cost considerations, and code compliance, framing the design process as a discrete structural optimization problem. [...] Read more.
The equivalent T-stub method is frequently employed in infrastructure projects, including bridge engineering, to simplify bolted connection analysis. However, steel connections remain inherently complex due to nonlinear behavior, cost considerations, and code compliance, framing the design process as a discrete structural optimization problem. This research addresses these challenges by presenting a comprehensive calculation framework that combines the finite element method (FEM) and genetic algorithm (GA) to accurately evaluate the structural performance of bolted T-stub configurations. The proposed approach accounts for nonlinear behavior, thereby reflecting realistic structural responses. To enhance the simulation efficiency and reduce the computational time without significantly compromising accuracy, the study introduces a simplified modeling methodology. The effectiveness of the approach is demonstrated through the development and experimental validation of a selected T-stub connection. Furthermore, a parameter sensitivity analysis is conducted to showcase the range of possible outcomes, emphasizing the potential for optimization. Finally, the proposed connections were optimized using GA, highlighting the benefits of structural optimization in achieving efficient and precise designs for steel connections. Full article
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24 pages, 11970 KiB  
Article
Structural Stability of Cycle Paths—Introducing Cycle Path Deflection Bowl Parameters from FWD Measurements
by Martin Larsson, Anna Niska and Sigurdur Erlingsson
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010007 - 31 Dec 2024
Viewed by 496
Abstract
A recurrent challenge on cycle paths are edge cracks, which affect the traffic safety and accessibility of cyclists and produce high maintenance costs. Being both structurally thinner and narrower structures than roads, the cycle paths are extra prone to this problem. A few [...] Read more.
A recurrent challenge on cycle paths are edge cracks, which affect the traffic safety and accessibility of cyclists and produce high maintenance costs. Being both structurally thinner and narrower structures than roads, the cycle paths are extra prone to this problem. A few passages of heavy vehicles in unfavourable conditions might be enough to break the edge. The load-bearing capacity of eight municipal cycle paths in Linköping, Sweden, were assessed by falling weight deflectometer (FWD) and light falling weight deflectometer (LWD) measurements during a year-long cycle. A set of alternative Deflection Bowl Parameters (DBPs), better adapted to the structural design of cycle paths, were suggested and evaluated. The results of the FWD measurements showed that these suggested DBPs are a promising approach to evaluate the load-bearing capacity of cycle paths. From the results of the LWD measurements, it was found that the load-bearing capacity varies considerably with lateral position. The conclusion is that it might be more fruitful to measure the load-bearing capacity by LWD close to the edge, rather than the traditional approach of FWD measurements along the centre line of the cycle path. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pavement Design and Pavement Management)
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17 pages, 1647 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Player Framework for Sustainable Traffic Optimization in the Era of Digital Transportation
by Areti Kotsi, Ioannis Politis, Emmanouil Chaniotakis and Evangelos Mitsakis
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010006 - 30 Dec 2024
Viewed by 480
Abstract
Nowadays, traffic management challenges in the era of digital transport are rising, as the interactions of various stakeholders providing such technologies play a pivotal role in shaping traffic dynamics. The objective of this paper was to present a game-theory-based framework for modeling and [...] Read more.
Nowadays, traffic management challenges in the era of digital transport are rising, as the interactions of various stakeholders providing such technologies play a pivotal role in shaping traffic dynamics. The objective of this paper was to present a game-theory-based framework for modeling and optimizing urban traffic in road networks, considering the co-existence and interactions of different players composed of drivers of conventional vehicles, central governing authorities with traffic management capabilities, and competitive or cooperative connected mobility private service providers. The scope of this work was to explore and present the outcomes of diverse mixed equilibrium conditions in the road network of the city of Thessaloniki (Greece), integrating the principles of user equilibrium, system optimum, and Cournot oligopoly. The impacts of varying network attributes were systematically analyzed to provide quantitative indicators representing the overall network performance. Analysis of the results provided insights into the sensitivity and the resilience of the road network under various prevalence schemes of drivers of conventional vehicles, representing the user equilibrium characteristics, or drivers relying on traffic guidance provided by a central governing authority, representing the system optimum principles as well as the cooperation and competition schemes of private connected mobility providers with certain market shares in the network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies for Effective and Intelligent Transport Infrastructure Monitoring)
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23 pages, 4823 KiB  
Article
Flexible and Sustainable Incremental Houses: Advancing Semi-Volumetric Systems of Prefabricated Construction for Rapid Urbanization in Indonesia
by Viata Viriezky, Dalhar Susanto and Miktha Farid Alkadri
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010005 - 30 Dec 2024
Viewed by 493
Abstract
The Indonesian population is projected to increase by 66.65 in 2035 due to the continuous rise in urbanization globally. The growth contributed to the growing housing backlog and limited availability of residential spaces. This led to the evolution of incremental housing construction as [...] Read more.
The Indonesian population is projected to increase by 66.65 in 2035 due to the continuous rise in urbanization globally. The growth contributed to the growing housing backlog and limited availability of residential spaces. This led to the evolution of incremental housing construction as an appropriate solution to residents’ needs. However, several factors hinder the implementation of incremental housing, including prolonged construction durations that delay the completion of an entire house, compromised quality of workmanship and materials, as well as poor flexibility. Conventional on-site construction, with concrete serving as the main material, led to prolonged construction time, difficult renovation, and untreatable waste. Preliminary studies have been conducted on incremental housing from urban development and financial perspectives, with none on alternative construction systems. Therefore, this study aimed to develop flexible and sustainable incremental housing with an assembly–disassembly system capable of reducing construction time and waste. This study experimented on the connection systems through digital simulations and prototypes leading to a construction system that combines frames and panels in a semi-volumetric system. It also combined a plug-and-play connection type to achieve the highest assembly–disassembly efficiency value (0.07), the lowest waste (below 25%), and a 30% shorter construction time. The result showed no displacement when tested with a load of up to 3 tons. This study contributed to the growing body of knowledge on alternative incremental house construction techniques, paving the way for more adaptable and environmentally responsible housing solutions in urban settings, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions like Indonesia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart, Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructures, 3rd Edition)
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36 pages, 6141 KiB  
Article
Unveiling the Potential of Metaheuristics in Transportation: A Path Towards Efficiency, Optimization, and Intelligent Management
by Álvaro Bueno-Ferrer, Jaime De Pablo Valenciano and Jerónimo De Burgos Jiménez
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010004 - 28 Dec 2024
Viewed by 1082
Abstract
Importance: This bibliometric analysis of the application of metaheuristics in transportation and logistics examines over two decades of research (1999–present), aiming to uncover global trends, anticipate future directions, and highlight how interconnections between key factors facilitate the development of practical and sustainable solutions [...] Read more.
Importance: This bibliometric analysis of the application of metaheuristics in transportation and logistics examines over two decades of research (1999–present), aiming to uncover global trends, anticipate future directions, and highlight how interconnections between key factors facilitate the development of practical and sustainable solutions for the industry. Methodology: A quantitative approach is employed to analyze the evolution of the discipline by reviewing an extensive database of relevant research and key authors and utilizing advanced data processing tools. This analysis enables the assessment of advances in the optimization of metaheuristic models, with an impact on time and cost savings from an economically sustainable perspective. Results: The use of metaheuristics optimizes the efficiency and competitiveness of the transportation sector while promoting a positive economic impact on companies. The main areas of application are optimization and metaheuristic methods, cost and operational efficiency, planning and scheduling, logistics and transportation, supply chain and logistics networks, energy and sustainability, and demand and users. Additionally, genetic algorithms stand out as particularly important. Conclusions: This research provides a comprehensive and detailed view of the impact of metaheuristics on the transportation sector, highlighting their current and future trends (such as artificial intelligence) and their economic relevance. Full article
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17 pages, 15261 KiB  
Article
Automatic Detection of Railway Faults Using Neural Networks: A Comparative Study of Transfer Learning Models and YOLOv11
by Omar Rodríguez-Abreo, Mario A. Quiroz-Juárez, Idalberto Macías-Socarras, Juvenal Rodríguez-Reséndiz, Juan M. Camacho-Pérez, Gabriel Carcedo-Rodríguez and Enrique Camacho-Pérez
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010003 - 28 Dec 2024
Viewed by 650
Abstract
Developing reliable railway fault detection systems is crucial for ensuring both safety and operational efficiency. Various artificial intelligence frameworks, especially deep learning models, have shown significant potential in enhancing fault detection within railway infrastructure. This study explores the application of deep learning models [...] Read more.
Developing reliable railway fault detection systems is crucial for ensuring both safety and operational efficiency. Various artificial intelligence frameworks, especially deep learning models, have shown significant potential in enhancing fault detection within railway infrastructure. This study explores the application of deep learning models for railway fault detection, focusing on both transfer learning architectures and a novel classification framework. Transfer learning was utilized with architectures such as ResNet50V2, Xception, VGG16, MobileNet, and InceptionV3, which were fine-tuned to classify railway track images into defective and non-defective categories. Additionally, the state-of-the-art YOLOv11 model was adapted for the same classification task, leveraging advanced data augmentation techniques to achieve high accuracy. Among the transfer learning models, VGG16 demonstrated the best performance with a test accuracy of 89.18%. However, YOLOv11 surpassed all models, achieving a test accuracy of 92.64% while maintaining significantly lower computational demands. These findings underscore the versatility of deep learning models and highlight the potential of YOLOv11 as an efficient and accurate solution for railway fault classification tasks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Railway in the City (RiC))
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17 pages, 7127 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Shear Performance of 16 m Full-Scale Prestressed Hollow Core Slabs
by Kang Zhao, Hui Wang, Houchuan Li, Yang Wei, Jinwei Lu and Guofen Li
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010002 - 25 Dec 2024
Viewed by 435
Abstract
To investigate the shear performance of 16 m span prestressed hollow core slabs, shear tests were conducted on three pre-tensioned prestressed hollow core slabs with the same shear-to-span ratio. A systematic analysis was performed on the failure modes, crack development patterns, load–deflection relationships, [...] Read more.
To investigate the shear performance of 16 m span prestressed hollow core slabs, shear tests were conducted on three pre-tensioned prestressed hollow core slabs with the same shear-to-span ratio. A systematic analysis was performed on the failure modes, crack development patterns, load–deflection relationships, and load–strain relationships of the prestressed hollow slabs. The test results indicate that all specimens experienced shear-compression failure under the same shear-to-span ratio (2.71). The main diagonal shear cracks were distributed within a range of 1.35 m to 1.95 m from the beam ends, with crack angles approximately between 45° and 55°. Finite element software ABAQUS was used for detailed numerical simulation of the tests. By comparing the failure modes and load–displacement curves, the reliability and applicability of the finite element model were verified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Infrastructures and Structural Engineering)
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22 pages, 6595 KiB  
Article
Flexural and Shear Strengthening of High-Strength Concrete Beams Using near Surface Basalt Fiber Bars
by Ahmed Ashteyat, Ala’ Taleb Obaidat, Ahmad Al-Khreisat and Mu’tasime Abdel-Jaber
Infrastructures 2025, 10(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures10010001 - 24 Dec 2024
Viewed by 618
Abstract
Strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures has become a primary challenge in civil engineering. Different materials and procedures have been used in order to repair or strengthen RC structures. In this research, the NSM-Basalt Bar (NSM-BFRP) technique was used to strengthen high-strength reinforced [...] Read more.
Strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures has become a primary challenge in civil engineering. Different materials and procedures have been used in order to repair or strengthen RC structures. In this research, the NSM-Basalt Bar (NSM-BFRP) technique was used to strengthen high-strength reinforced concrete beams in flexure and shear. Twelve beams were designed, constructed, and tested under four-point loads. Six of them were designed to have insufficient longitudinal steel reinforcement to make sure that the failure would be a flexural failure in the control beam. Whereas, the other six specimens were designed to have insufficient transverse steel reinforcement to make sure that the failure will be a shear failure in the control beam. All RC beams were strengthened using NSM-BFRP with different configurations except control specimens. The load deflection curve, the cracking pattern and the failure mode were evaluated. The experimental results reveal that NSM-BFRP bars significantly enhance the ultimate load capacity of high-strength concrete beams, with flexural capacity improvements of up to 33.33% and shear capacity enhancements of up to 63.5%. However, the use of BFRP bars also led to a shift in failure modes from flexural to shear, particularly in specimens with increased flexural reinforcement. The findings suggest that while NSM-BFRP bars are highly effective in strengthening concrete beams, careful consideration of the reinforcement configuration is necessary to avoid premature shear failure and ensure balanced structural performance. Full article
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