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19 pages, 5508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress Analysis of Ice Layers on Fan Rotor Blades in Aeroengines

by Zhiyuan Xu, Lifen Zhang, Hailong Guo and Zhenxia Liu

Aerospace 2024, 11(10), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11100814 - 6 Oct 2024

Viewed by 579

Abstract

Fan rotor blades are critical components of aeroengines. When an aircraft flies in icing conditions, ice accumulation on the fan surface may lead to periodic shedding. Severe ice shedding can cause mechanical damage to the engine, posing significant safety risks. This study investigates [...] Read more.

Fan rotor blades are critical components of aeroengines. When an aircraft flies in icing conditions, ice accumulation on the fan surface may lead to periodic shedding. Severe ice shedding can cause mechanical damage to the engine, posing significant safety risks. This study investigates ice accretion on the surface of ROTOR 67 rotor blades and their stress distribution. This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the internal stress distribution of ice layers on the surface of rotating blades under different icing times and rotational speeds, especially the stress concentration of the areas at the contact surface between the ice layer and the blade. This study predicts the stress distribution of ice layers under different working conditions more accurately, which helps to identify potential ice layer fracture risks in advance. Moreover, it integrates the icing process, stress distribution, and shedding mechanism for analysis, providing a comprehensive perspective. It considers the interaction of various environmental factors and operating conditions, offering an in-depth understanding of ice layer behavior under complex working conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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15 pages, 7218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Runback Water Flow Behavior on Aero-Engine Rotating Spinners with Different Wettabilities

by Kuiyuan Ma, Guiping Lin, Haichuan Jin, Xiaobin Shen and Xueqin Bu

Aerospace 2024, 11(7), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11070591 - 20 Jul 2024

Viewed by 698

Abstract

The accumulation of ice on the aero-engine inlet compromises engine safety. Traditional hot air anti-icing systems, which utilize bleed air, require substantial energy, decreasing engine performance and increasing emissions. Superhydrophobic materials have shown potential in reducing energy consumption when combined with these systems. [...] Read more.

The accumulation of ice on the aero-engine inlet compromises engine safety. Traditional hot air anti-icing systems, which utilize bleed air, require substantial energy, decreasing engine performance and increasing emissions. Superhydrophobic materials have shown potential in reducing energy consumption when combined with these systems. Research indicates that superhydrophobic surfaces on stationary components significantly reduce anti-icing energy consumption by altering runback water flow behavior. However, for rotating aero-engine components, the effectiveness of superhydrophobic surfaces and the influence of surface wettability on runback water flow remain unclear due to centrifugal and Coriolis forces. This study investigates the runback water flow behavior on aero-engine rotating spinner surfaces with varying wettabilities in a straight-flow spray wind tunnel. The results demonstrated that centrifugal force reduces the amount of runback water on the rotating spinner compared to the stationary surface, forming rivulet flows deflected opposite to the direction of rotation. Furthermore, wettability significantly affects the flow characteristics of runback water on rotating surfaces. As the contact angle increases, the liquid water on the rotating spinner transitions from continuous film flow to rivulet and bead-like flows. Notably, the superhydrophobic surface prevents water adhesion, indicating its potential for anti-icing on rotating components. In addition, the interaction between rotational speed and surface wettability enhances the effects, with both increased rotational speed and larger contact angles contributing to higher liquid water flow velocities, promoting the rapid formation and detachment of rivulet and bead-like flows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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22 pages, 6079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Water Film Flow and Breakup on Anti-Icing Surface

by Changxian Zhang, Lei Liu, Yaping Hu and Pengfei Li

Aerospace 2024, 11(5), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11050352 - 29 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1510

Abstract

The flow and morphological characteristics of liquid water on the icing and anti-icing surfaces of aircraft are closely related to the icing characteristics and anti-icing surface temperature distribution. To predict the flow and breakup characteristics of a water film, a 3D model of [...] Read more.

The flow and morphological characteristics of liquid water on the icing and anti-icing surfaces of aircraft are closely related to the icing characteristics and anti-icing surface temperature distribution. To predict the flow and breakup characteristics of a water film, a 3D model of continuous water film flow and a model of water film breakup into rivulets on an anti-icing surface were constructed based on the icing model, and the corresponding methods for solving the models were developed. Using the NACA0012 airfoil as a simulation object, the changing characteristics of height and velocity for a continuous water film with time and the morphological characteristics of rivulets formed from the breakup of a continuous water film were simulated numerically. The results indicate that, with an increase in inflow velocity, the time required for the water film to completely cover the surface and reach stability decreases. Downstream in the water droplet impact zone, the calculated values of continuous water film height align well with experiments, as well as the stream height at the continuous water film rupture location with the experimental values. With the reasonable contact angle, the calculation error of the stream width is within 10%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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24 pages, 18418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Phase Transition and Collection Characteristics of Non-Spherical Ice Crystals with Eulerian and Lagrangian Methods

by Shengfang Lu, Weijian Chen, Dalin Zhang, Zihao Zhang and Guangya Zhu

Aerospace 2024, 11(4), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11040299 - 11 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1130

Abstract

Ice crystal icing occurs in jet engine compressors, which can severely degrade jet engine performance. In this paper, two different numerical calculation methods, the Eulerian method and the Lagrangian method, were used to evaluate the dynamics, mass transfer, heat transfer, phase transition and [...] Read more.

Ice crystal icing occurs in jet engine compressors, which can severely degrade jet engine performance. In this paper, two different numerical calculation methods, the Eulerian method and the Lagrangian method, were used to evaluate the dynamics, mass transfer, heat transfer, phase transition and trajectory of ice crystals. Then, we studied the effects of initial diameter, initial sphericity, initial temperature of ice crystal, and relative humidity of airflow on the phase transition and collection characteristics of ice crystal particles. Results indicate that the non-spherical characteristics of ice crystals have a significant impact on their impingement limits and collection characteristics. The collection coefficient of unmelted ice crystals is positively correlated with the initial particle diameter and sphericity, and negatively correlated with the initial particle temperature and the relative humidity of airflow. The melting rate of ice crystal particles on the impact surface increases exponentially with the initial diameter of the particles, linearly increases with the relative humidity of the airflow and initial temperature of the particles, and exponentially decreases with the sphericity of the particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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17 pages, 18023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Methods for Obtaining Droplet Impingement Characteristics in the Lagrangian Framework

by Xiaobin Shen, Chunhua Xiao, Yijun Ning, Huanfa Wang, Guiping Lin and Liangquan Wang

Aerospace 2024, 11(3), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11030172 - 21 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1347

Abstract

The impact of supercooled water droplets is the cause of aircraft icing, and the acquisition of impingement characteristics is the key to icing prediction and the design of ice protection systems. The introduction of water droplet collection efficiency is required to obtain the [...] Read more.

The impact of supercooled water droplets is the cause of aircraft icing, and the acquisition of impingement characteristics is the key to icing prediction and the design of ice protection systems. The introduction of water droplet collection efficiency is required to obtain the characteristics for the Lagrangian method. In this work, a traditional flow tube method, a local flow tube method, and a statistical method are established to calculate the local collection efficiency, based on Lagrangian droplet trajectories. Through the numerical simulations of the air–droplet flow field around an NACA 0012 airfoil, the accuracies of the three methods in regard to collection efficiency are verified. Then, these three methods are applied to obtain the results for water droplet trajectories and the collection efficiency of an S-shaped duct, a 2D engine cone section and an icing wind tunnel. The results show that the distributions of water droplet collection efficiency obtained by the three methods are consistent and the three methods are all feasible when the water droplets do not overlap or cross before hitting the aircraft surfaces. When the water droplets are shadowed by upstream surfaces or blown by air injection, the droplet trajectories might overlap or even cross, and the local collection efficiencies obtained by the traditional flow tube method, local flow tube method, and statistical method might differ. The statistical method is relatively accurate. However, not all the droplet impingement characteristics obtained by the three methods are different due to these effects, and the non-crossing of the droplet trajectories is not a necessary condition for the use of the flow tube method. The effects of trajectory crossings are analyzed and discussed in detail in different situations for the three methods. This work is helpful for understanding and accurately calculating the droplet impingement characteristics and is of great significance for simulations of the aircraft icing process and anti/de-icing range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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12 pages, 3762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation on Ice–Aluminum Interface Adhesion Strength under Heating Conditions

by Yusong Wang, Chengxiang Zhu, Ke Xiong and Chunling Zhu

Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020152 - 14 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1249

Abstract

Ice accumulation on airfoils and engines seriously endangers fight safety. The design of anti-icing/de-icing systems calls for an accurate measurement of the adhesion strength between ice and substrates. In this research, a test bench for adhesion strength measurement is designed and built. Its [...] Read more.

Ice accumulation on airfoils and engines seriously endangers fight safety. The design of anti-icing/de-icing systems calls for an accurate measurement of the adhesion strength between ice and substrates. In this research, a test bench for adhesion strength measurement is designed and built. Its reliability and accuracy are verified by the calibration. The adhesion strength is first measured at different loading speeds and freezing times, and the most suitable values are determined based on the results. Then, the variation in adhesion strength with heating temperatures at different initial substrate temperatures and different heating powers is investigated. Parameter AW is defined to evaluate the heating power from the point of view of energy consumption and adhesion strength. As a result, the loading speed and the freezing time are determined to be 0.5 mm/s and 90 min, respectively. The adhesion strength degrades as the heating temperature increases. As the initial temperature drops, the adhesion strength decreases more slowly. Furthermore, the temperature of WAS (Weak Adhesion State) under heating varies with the initial temperature. Heating with a high power will yield more reduction in adhesion strength for the same temperature increase. The values of AW illustrate that a medium power heating is more favorable to reduce the adhesion strength with a low energy consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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26 pages, 11701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Round-Robin Study for Ice Adhesion Tests

by Nadine Rehfeld, Jean-Denis Brassard, Masafumi Yamazaki, Hirotaka Sakaue, Marcella Balordi, Heli Koivuluoto, Julio Mora, Jianying He, Marie-Laure Pervier, Ali Dolatabadi, Emily Asenath-Smith, Mikael Järn, Xianghui Hou and Volkmar Stenzel

Aerospace 2024, 11(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11020106 - 24 Jan 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1914

Abstract

Ice adhesion tests are widely used to assess the performance of potential icephobic surfaces and coatings. A great variety of test designs have been developed and used over the past decades due to the lack of formal standards for these types of tests. [...] Read more.

Ice adhesion tests are widely used to assess the performance of potential icephobic surfaces and coatings. A great variety of test designs have been developed and used over the past decades due to the lack of formal standards for these types of tests. In many cases, the aim of the research was not only to determine ice adhesion values, but also to understand the key surface properties correlated to low ice adhesion surfaces. Data from different measurement techniques had low correspondence between the results: Values varied by orders of magnitude and showed different relative relationships to one another. This study sought to provide a broad comparison of ice adhesion testing approaches by conducting different ice adhesion tests with identical test surfaces. A total of 15 test facilities participated in this round-robin study, and the results of 13 partners are summarized in this paper. For the test series, ice types (impact and static) as well as test parameters were harmonized to minimize the deviations between the test setups. Our findings are presented in this paper, and the ice- and test-specific results are discussed. This study can improve our understanding of test results and support the standardization process for ice adhesion strength measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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18 pages, 1712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Trajectory and Impingement Simulation of Ice Crystals Considering State Changes on the Rotor Blade of an Axial Fan

by Koichiro Hirose, Koji Fukudome, Hiroya Mamori and Makoto Yamamoto

Aerospace 2024, 11(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11010002 - 19 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1339

Abstract

Ice crystal icing occurs in jet engine compressors, which can severely degrade jet engine performance. In this study, we developed an ice crystal trajectory simulation, considering the state changes of ice crystals with a forced convection model, indicating a significant difference in impinging [...] Read more.

Ice crystal icing occurs in jet engine compressors, which can severely degrade jet engine performance. In this study, we developed an ice crystal trajectory simulation, considering the state changes of ice crystals with a forced convection model, indicating a significant difference in impinging ice crystal content on the blade for tiny ice crystals. Then, ice crystal trajectory simulations were performed for the rotor blade of an axial fan to investigate the effects of ice crystal size and relative humidity on collision characteristics. The results indicate that the surrounding air affects the composition of tiny ice crystals before collision, and the flight time until impingement on the rotor blade varies significantly depending on the span position. Among them, ice crystals with a diameter of 50 μm impinge with water content that is most likely to adhere to the blade. Three-dimensional simulation results show that many ice crystals impinge not only on the leading edge, where icing occurs as revealed by the two-dimensional simulations but also on the trailing edge of the hub side. This study emphasizes the importance of evaluating the three-dimensional impingement position and water content in the prediction of ice crystal icing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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33 pages, 15341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ice Accretion: Image Post-Processing Measurement Techniques for 2D Ice Shapes

by Adriana Enache, Joachim Wallisch, Jeroen van Beeck, Patrick Hendrick and Richard Hann

Aerospace 2023, 10(5), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10050451 - 13 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

Ice accretion poses substantial safety hazards for the manned and unmanned aviation industries. Its study is essential for icing events risk assessment and for the development of efficient ice protection systems. The existing ice accretion measurement techniques—casting, molding, and laser-scanning—are time-consuming, sometimes cumbersome [...] Read more.

Ice accretion poses substantial safety hazards for the manned and unmanned aviation industries. Its study is essential for icing events risk assessment and for the development of efficient ice protection systems. The existing ice accretion measurement techniques—casting, molding, and laser-scanning—are time-consuming, sometimes cumbersome to use, and highly expensive, while hand tracing is inexpensive, but has lower accuracy and time-consuming post-processing. This work presents two low-cost, fast, and easy-to-use measurement techniques for 2D ice accretion profiles. Both employ algorithms of automatic ice shape detection, one based on unmediated image-processing, another based on the processing of manual ice tracings. The techniques are applied to ice accretion experiments conducted in an icing wind tunnel at low Reynolds numbers, and their results are validated against ice thickness caliper measurements. A comparison of the results shows that both techniques accurately measure the leading-edge ice thickness and the 2D shape of the ice accretion profiles. One technique is faster, with higher measurement accuracy, but produces interrupted-line 2D ice profiles and requires good lighting conditions, while the other generates continuous-line 2D profiles and has no application restriction, but it is slower, with lower accuracy. A discussion is conducted, aiming to help one determine the best applications for each ice accretion measurement technique presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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29 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of an Electrothermal Ice Protection System in Anti-Icing and Deicing Mode

by Lokman Bennani, Pierre Trontin and Emmanuel Radenac

Aerospace 2023, 10(1), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10010075 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3381

Abstract

The design of efficient thermal ice protection systems is a challenging task as these systems operate in complex environments involving several coupled physical phenomena such as phase change, boundary-layer flow, and heat transfer. Moreover, certification rules are becoming more stringent, and there is [...] Read more.

The design of efficient thermal ice protection systems is a challenging task as these systems operate in complex environments involving several coupled physical phenomena such as phase change, boundary-layer flow, and heat transfer. Moreover, certification rules are becoming more stringent, and there is a strong incentive for the reduction of fuel consumption. In this context, numerical tools provide a powerful asset during the design phase but also to gain insight into the physical mechanisms at play. This article presents modeling and simulation strategies for thermal ice protection systems. First, the model describing the behavior of the thermal protection system is presented. Second, a model and associated numerical method is presented for unsteady ice accretion. Third, the coupling methodology between the ice accretion solver and the heat conduction solver is described. In the fourth part, different methods to simulate the boundary-layer flow are described. Finally, some relevant examples are presented, both in steady and unsteady configurations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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22 pages, 7321 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fiber Optic Ice Sensor for Measuring Ice Thickness, Type and the Freezing Fraction on Aircraft Wings

by Aris Ikiades

Aerospace 2023, 10(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10010031 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2843

Abstract

Ice accretion on an aircraft affects the aerodynamic performance of the wings by disrupting the airflow, increasing drag, and altering its flight characteristics, leading to a main or tail wing-stall and altimetry to aircraft loss. The current generation of ice-detection systems relies on [...] Read more.

Ice accretion on an aircraft affects the aerodynamic performance of the wings by disrupting the airflow, increasing drag, and altering its flight characteristics, leading to a main or tail wing-stall and altimetry to aircraft loss. The current generation of ice-detection systems relies on environmental parameters to determine icing conditions, with the sensors usually located on the nose of the aircraft, giving no information on the ice accreted on the wings. This work focuses on modeling and developing a fiber-optic-array ice sensor, which illuminates and detects the reflected and scattered light directly from the ice surface and volume, and measures the accretion rate and type of ice on the wings. The ice morphology is influenced by the rate of freezing of the super-cooled droplets impacting the wings, and partially or totally trapping the dissolved gasses. This leads to the formation of rugged surfaces and ice shapes, which can be transparent or opaque, a process which is dependent on the local Freezing Fraction (FF) of the impinging super cooled water. The detection method relies on the optical characteristics of ice, affected by density and the size of micro-cracks and micro-bubbles formed during freezing. By using high Numerical Aperture (NA) fibers, it was possible to accurately measure the ice thickness, and to investigate a proof-of-concept experiment, correlating the optical diffusion to the FF of the ice on a wing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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Review

Jump to: Research

30 pages, 17366 KiB

Open AccessReview

Integrated Technologies for Anti-Deicing Functions and Structures of Aircraft: Current Status and Development Trends

by Yanchao Cui, Weijian Chen, Ning Dai and Chuang Han

Aerospace 2024, 11(10), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11100821 - 8 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1361

Abstract

With the increasing adoption of composite materials in aircraft construction, traditional anti-icing technologies face significant challenges due to the low thermal conductivity and heat resistance of composite resins. These limitations have spurred the development of lightweight, efficient, durable, and cost-effective integrated anti-icing technologies [...] Read more.

With the increasing adoption of composite materials in aircraft construction, traditional anti-icing technologies face significant challenges due to the low thermal conductivity and heat resistance of composite resins. These limitations have spurred the development of lightweight, efficient, durable, and cost-effective integrated anti-icing technologies as a critical area of research. This paper begins with an overview of advancements in electrothermal anti-icing and de-icing technologies for aircraft. It then explores the configurations and applications of functional-structural integration technology for anti-icing and de-icing, emphasizing pivotal technologies and current challenges in this field. Finally, the study forecasts the development trends in the multifunctional integration of thermal conductivity/insulation, anti-icing, and electromagnetic wave transparency/wave-absorbing properties. These advancements are driven by the evolution of composite materialization in aircraft and the progression of multi-electrical/all-electrical technologies. The objective is to provide a comprehensive guide for technological development in anti-icing, aiding researchers and relevant departments to further enhance the application of anti-icing technology in composite material aircraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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19 pages, 12007 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Determination of Criticality for Ice Shapes Based on CCAR-25

by Xiong Huang, Shiru Qu, Heng Zhang, Feng Zhou and Yong Chen

Aerospace 2024, 11(9), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11090710 - 31 Aug 2024

Viewed by 470

Abstract

Determining the criticality of ice shapes is a necessary condition for verifying compliance with icing airworthiness regulations. However, the clear, concise, and applicable criterion based on the geometric characteristics of ice shapes has not been clearly given out by current advisory circulars. To [...] Read more.

Determining the criticality of ice shapes is a necessary condition for verifying compliance with icing airworthiness regulations. However, the clear, concise, and applicable criterion based on the geometric characteristics of ice shapes has not been clearly given out by current advisory circulars. To address this problem, this paper summarizes aerodynamic performance items and recommended ice shapes the latest version of CCAR-25 and corresponding advisory circulars for a variety of flight phases, including takeoff, holding, en route, DTO, etc., instead of the single phase of holding in the previous research. Based on the geometric classification of the ice shapes, the dominant parameters of various ice shapes are clarified by the correlation between the geometric parameters and aerodynamic effects. The geometric parameters to determine the criticality of specific ice shapes are defined as the roughness height and range for the roughness ice and the total projection height in the direction of lift for the horn ice. On this basis, the detailed determination criterion of critical ice shape geometries corresponding to different flight phases and aircraft components is formulated, which will provide an operational selection methodology for determining the geometries of critical ice shapes at the airworthiness certification stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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26 pages, 3297 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ice Accretion on Rotary-Wing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles—A Review Study

by Manaf Muhammed and Muhammad Shakeel Virk

Aerospace 2023, 10(3), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10030261 - 8 Mar 2023

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3690

Abstract

Ice accretion on rotary-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (RWUAVs) needs to be studied separately from the fixed-wing UAVs because of the additional flow complexities induced by the propeller rotation. The aerodynamics of rotatory wings are extremely challenging compared to the fixed-wing configuration. Atmospheric icing [...] Read more.

Ice accretion on rotary-wing unmanned aerial vehicles (RWUAVs) needs to be studied separately from the fixed-wing UAVs because of the additional flow complexities induced by the propeller rotation. The aerodynamics of rotatory wings are extremely challenging compared to the fixed-wing configuration. Atmospheric icing can be considered a hazard that can plague the operation of UAVs, especially in the Arctic region, as it can impose severe aerodynamic penalties on the performance of propellers. Rotary-wing structures are more prone to ice accretion and ice shedding because of the centrifugal force due to rotational motion, whereby the shedding of the ice can lead to mass imbalance and vibration. The nature of ice accretion on rotatory wings and associated performance degradation need to be understood in detail to aid in the optimum design of rotary-wing UAVs, as well as to develop adequate ice mitigation techniques. Limited research studies are available about icing on rotary wings, and no mature ice mitigation technique exists. Currently, there is an increasing interest in research on these topics. This paper provides a comprehensive review of studies related to icing on RWUAVs, and potential knowledge gaps are also identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume III))

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