Agriculture

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3 pages, 144 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Preface to the Special Issue “Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control”

by Pankaj Kumar and Vinod Kumar

Agriculture 2024, 14(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14010104 - 8 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1576

Abstract

Recent developments in agriculture have played a key role in meeting the food needs of 8 [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

Research

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13 pages, 1339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar and Cd Alter the Degradation and Transport of Kasugamycin in Soil and Spinach

by Liqiang Cui, Jingwen Ma, Guixiang Quan, Jinlong Yan, James A. Ippolito and Hui Wang

Agriculture 2023, 13(11), 2172; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13112172 - 20 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1415

Abstract

Biochar has been widely studied to reduce multiple contaminant sources in one matrix (e.g., several heavy metals in soils), yet less attention has been paid to accelerating pesticide degradation while in the presence of any heavy metals, such as when kasugamycin (KSM) and [...] Read more.

Biochar has been widely studied to reduce multiple contaminant sources in one matrix (e.g., several heavy metals in soils), yet less attention has been paid to accelerating pesticide degradation while in the presence of any heavy metals, such as when kasugamycin (KSM) and cadmium (Cd) are both present in soil. While KSM has low toxicity compared to other pesticides, it can be a potential health risk when applied to vegetable crops, especially when KSM is used or overapplied to achieve rapid reductions in insect and disease pressure. The degradation behavior of KSM (2 kg ha⁻¹) in the presence of Cd (20 mg kg⁻¹) and biochar (5% by wt.) when growing spinach (Spinacia oleracea) was studied. The biochar increased spinach shoot and root biomass by 51.0–54.8% and 24.4–39.0%, respectively, compared to the KSM treatment only. Compared to the treatments that did not receive biochar, the biochar application increased the KSM degradation in the soil by 8.4–68.4% and, subsequently, less KSM was absorbed by the spinach roots (18.0–48.4%) and shoots (33.0–33.2%). The KSM degradation rate, as a function of soil depth, was enhanced in the presence of Cd. The biochar also effectively decreased the KSM concentration with soil depth, reducing downward KSM migration. The KSM degradation, increased by the biochar, led to smaller organic moieties and some macromolecular organic phases. In soils that are contaminated with Cd and where vegetables are raised, biochar may be used as an environmentally friendly proponent for increasing KSM degradation, reducing KSM downward transport and, thus, protecting environmental and human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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19 pages, 6699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Rockwool Potentially Harmful to the Soil Environment as a Nursery Substrate? Taking Eisenia fetida as an Example for Toxicological Analysis

by Shengyang Zheng, Chenzhe Wang, Jing Ju, Qigen Dai, Haitao Zhao, Ping Liu and Xin Wang

Agriculture 2023, 13(10), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101964 - 8 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1685

Abstract

We studied the effect of rockwool matrix on the conventional physical and chemical properties of soil and analyzed its toxicological effect on Eisenia fetida. The physical and chemical properties of rockwool were studied with characterization tests. By measuring earthworm enzymes and earthworm [...] Read more.

We studied the effect of rockwool matrix on the conventional physical and chemical properties of soil and analyzed its toxicological effect on Eisenia fetida. The physical and chemical properties of rockwool were studied with characterization tests. By measuring earthworm enzymes and earthworm intestinal microorganisms, the effects of different rockwool particle sizes and additive amount on Eisenia fetida were analyzed. The results indicate that a low concentration of rockwool (<30 g/kg) had little effect on the soil physicochemical properties and the activity of Eisenia fetida, and played a positive role in improving the soil porosity. A high concentration of rockwool (>100 g/kg) reduced the exchangeable Ca and Mg content in the soil, and had a significant impact on the enzyme activity of Eisenia fetida. Mechanism studies have shown that high concentrations of rockwool (>200 g/kg) can have a significant impact on the nervous system of earthworm tissue. In addition, small particle size and low concentration of rockwool is conducive to the increase in intestinal microbial species of Eisenia fetida. This study clarifies the effects of emerging rockwool substrates on soil and soil organisms and provides theoretical support for the safe and reliable application of rockwool substrates in agricultural production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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16 pages, 11302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Current Status and Spatiotemporal Evolution of Antibiotic Residues in Livestock and Poultry Manure in China

by Yanli Li, Qingjie Li, Zhengyu Ji, Okbagaber Andom, Xiaoxing Wang, Xueqi Guo and Zhaojun Li

Agriculture 2023, 13(10), 1877; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101877 - 25 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1832

Abstract

The use of antibiotics in the livestock and poultry industries has raised significant concern about environmental and health problems. In light of this, accurate knowledge of antibiotic residues in livestock and poultry manure is important for pollution management and strategic decision-making at the [...] Read more.

The use of antibiotics in the livestock and poultry industries has raised significant concern about environmental and health problems. In light of this, accurate knowledge of antibiotic residues in livestock and poultry manure is important for pollution management and strategic decision-making at the national level. This study aims to provide a comprehensive report on antibiotic residues in livestock and poultry manure in China using the published data of 3751 livestock and poultry feces in 29 provincial-level units over the past 20 years. In this study, the overall status of antibiotic residues in livestock and poultry feces was analyzed by mathematical statistics. Moreover, the spatio-temporal variation characteristics were analyzed by spatial statistics, and the differences among livestock and poultry species were evaluated by subgroup analysis. The finding indicated that tetracyclines (TCs), quinolones (QLs), sulfonamides (SAs), and macrolides (MLs) were the most abundant residues in livestock and poultry manure. The spatial and temporal variation revealed that the overall trend of antibiotic residues decreased gradually, and the spatial distribution was primarily concentrated in the southeast of Hu Line, exhibiting a “northeast-southwest” distribution. The distribution range also decreased slightly, with the residues of tetracyclines (TCs), quinolones (QLs), sulfonamides (SAs), and pleuromutilins (PMs) showing a significant spatial hot spot. The center of gravity of antibiotic residue shifted to the southwest between 2003 and 2021. In comparison to cow and sheep manure, the tetracyclines (TCs), sulfonamides (SAs), and macrolides (MLs) in pig and chicken manure were higher. The results can serve as a reference for the control and reduction of antibiotic pollution in livestock and poultry manure, as well as the wise utilization of those resources and achieving goals for clean agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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13 pages, 1700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions by Tractor Utilization in Korea

by Myoung Ho Kim and Seong Min Kim

Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1811; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091811 - 14 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1367

Abstract

The utilization of tractors is essential because of both the shortage of agricultural labor forces and the rapid aging of farmers in Korean agriculture. Tractors can be classified into two types: a walking tractor called as a power tiller, and a riding tractor. [...] Read more.

The utilization of tractors is essential because of both the shortage of agricultural labor forces and the rapid aging of farmers in Korean agriculture. Tractors can be classified into two types: a walking tractor called as a power tiller, and a riding tractor. In this study, diesel emission inventories of tractors were established and variations of air pollutants were analyzed with each other using 2011 and 2019 survey data in Korea. Agricultural tractors including walking and riding types, which were categorized into three levels via the rated output power, were the main sources of diesel emissions. The emission inventory including CO, NOx, SOx, TSP(PM₁₀), PM_2.5, VOCs, and NH₃ were established using a Tier 3 methodology. The total amount of emissions using agricultural tractors was decreased by about 13% from 2011 to 2019. The number of walking tractors were decreased by about 19% in 8 years; on the other hand, that of riding tractors were increased by about 12%. However, the emission reduction is about 48% for walking tractors, and the emission increment is about 5% for riding tractors. Thus, the total emission from agricultural tractors was decreased by about 16% in those periods. It is due to the decrease of 21% and 15% in the hours of use of walking and riding tractors, respectively, in 2019. Walking tractors mainly emit air pollutants from spraying and transporting. Riding tractors emit about 61% of the total air pollutants mainly from soil preparation and transporting operations. The geographic information system (GIS) was used to visualize the distribution of air pollutants in Korea. High-emission generating regions and the changes of emissions over 8 years were clearly seen in the GIS analysis. High air-pollutant emitting regions are mainly located in the western and southern regions of Korea, which have plenty of arable areas compared to other regions in Korea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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18 pages, 1213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing Herbicide Dependency: Impact of Murraya koenigii Leaf Extract on Weed Control and Growth of Wheat (Triticum aestivum) and Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

by Deepti Singh Vashishth, Archana Bachheti, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti, Sadeq K. Alhag, Laila A. Al-Shuraym, Pankaj Kumar and Azamal Husen

Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1678; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091678 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1826

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of Murraya koenigii (curry leaf) aqueous extract on the seed germination and growth of two crops and their associated weeds (Anagallis arvensis, Poa annua, Lepidium didymum, and Vicia sativa [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of Murraya koenigii (curry leaf) aqueous extract on the seed germination and growth of two crops and their associated weeds (Anagallis arvensis, Poa annua, Lepidium didymum, and Vicia sativa). Wheat (Triticum aestivum) and Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) seeds were soaked in solutions containing 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% concentrations of aqueous extracts of M. koenigii leaves, while distilled water was used as a control. Higher concentrations of the extract significantly increased the percentage of germination inhibition and decreased the radicle length and plumule length of both crops compared to the control. It was interesting to find that the pot-based experiment had no influence on the shoot length, plant dry mass, chlorophyll, carotenoid, proline, or protein content, stomatal conductance, or photosynthetic and transpiration rate in either crop. Similarly, in comparison to the control, the activity of antioxidant enzymes (peroxidase (PER), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT)) had no significant influence. Soil physiochemical parameters and weed shoot growth were also investigated. In a Petri plate experiment, 6, 8, and 10% concentrations inhibited germination of both crops. In comparison, in the pot experiment, the growth of both crops was significant at lower concentrations, and 1% aqueous extract of M. koenigii was reported to be lethal to weeds without affecting the soil physiochemical properties. Based on the results of this study, it can be inferred that the reduced germination rate of the tested species after treatment with the extract could be attributed to damage caused by the extracts to the membrane system of the seed. This study concluded that an aqueous leaf extract of M. koenigii can inhibit the growth of weeds without affecting the germination, growth, photosynthetic, and biochemical properties of C. arietinum and T. aestivum or the physiochemical properties of soil; thus, it may be a potential candidate for the development of new bioherbicides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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15 pages, 1624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Content, Uptake and Bioaccumulation Factor of Copper and Nickel in Grass Depending on Zinc Application and Organic Fertilization

by Beata Kuziemska, Andrzej Wysokinski and Paulina Klej

Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1676; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091676 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1300

Abstract

Different content of Zn in the soil and organic fertilization can affect micronutrient uptake by plants. A pot experiment was carried out to determine the impact of increasing Zn application rates, i.e., 200, 400 and 600 Zn mg·kg⁻¹, in combination with [...] Read more.

Different content of Zn in the soil and organic fertilization can affect micronutrient uptake by plants. A pot experiment was carried out to determine the impact of increasing Zn application rates, i.e., 200, 400 and 600 Zn mg·kg⁻¹, in combination with bovine and chicken manures and mushroom substrate on Cu and Ni content, uptake and bioaccumulation factor in cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata L.). Control objects without Zn and organic fertilizers and after application of only different Zn doses and only organic fertilizers were also tested. Application of Zn at 400 and 600 mg·kg⁻¹ significantly decreased the content, uptake and value of bioaccumulation factor of Cu in the grass. Different Zn doses were not found to influence the content and bioaccumulation factor of Ni in cocksfoot, but application at 200 Zn mg·kg⁻¹ increased Ni uptake. Chicken manure increased the content and bioaccumulation factor of Cu and Ni in the test plant, and all the organic fertilizers increased their uptake. Cocksfoot showed no tendency to excessive bioaccumulation of Cu and Ni. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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21 pages, 4720 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar, Halloysite, and Alginite Improve the Quality of Soil Contaminated with Petroleum Products

by Jadwiga Wyszkowska, Agata Borowik, Magdalena Zaborowska and Jan Kucharski

Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1669; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091669 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1328

Abstract

Investigations into the effective, fast, and economically viable remediation of soils polluted with petroleum-derived products are still relevant. The vegetative pot experiment was conducted at the Didactic-Experimental Garden greenhouse (NE, Poland, 53.759° N, 20.452° E) on loamy sand (LS) and sandy loam (SL) [...] Read more.

Investigations into the effective, fast, and economically viable remediation of soils polluted with petroleum-derived products are still relevant. The vegetative pot experiment was conducted at the Didactic-Experimental Garden greenhouse (NE, Poland, 53.759° N, 20.452° E) on loamy sand (LS) and sandy loam (SL) soils. Its main research objective was to assess the effectiveness of biochar (B), halloysite (H) and alginite (A) in the biological regeneration of contaminated soil diesel oil (DO) and petrol (P). The assessment was conducted by determining the magnitude of the adverse impact of these xenobiotics on the growth and development of Zea mays, as well as the activity of seven soil enzymes. The impact of the tested contaminants and sorbents was assessed based on the impact factors (IF) of DO and P, as well as B, H, and A on Zea mays biomass and enzymatic activity of the soil. Soil contamination with petroleum-derived products disrupted the growth and development of Zea mays. DO had a stronger inhibitory effect on plant growth compared to P. Zea mays cultivated in LS, which was less resistant to the effects of these contaminants compared to that cultivated in SL. The impact of DO and P on enzyme activity depended on the soil texture. DO stimulated enzyme activity in LS and SL, while P only did so in LS. All remediation substances, and biochar in particular, led to an increase in plant biomass in the DO-contaminated soils. Both biochar, halloysite and alginite also improved the biochemical quality index (BA) of SL and LS. Despite the unquestionable remediation potential of the analyzed sorbents, their highest efficacy can only be achieved by their application on soils with physicochemical properties corresponding to their characteristics, which is a valuable guideline for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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20 pages, 4241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Environmental Tax Scheme in China’s Large-Scale Pig Farming: Balancing Economic Burden and Responsibility

by Tiemei Yan, Tong Zhang and Zhanguo Zhu

Agriculture 2023, 13(8), 1576; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13081576 - 7 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1776

Abstract

China has implemented an environmental protection tax for large-scale agricultural farming to address environmental pollution caused by livestock and poultry breeding. Studying the environmental management of large-scale pig farming is crucial for controlling agricultural pollution. However, the economic impact and effectiveness of the [...] Read more.

China has implemented an environmental protection tax for large-scale agricultural farming to address environmental pollution caused by livestock and poultry breeding. Studying the environmental management of large-scale pig farming is crucial for controlling agricultural pollution. However, the economic impact and effectiveness of the current tax design, including responsibility sharing, tax rates, and taxpayers, are unclear. This study aims to address these gaps. Firstly, two types of taxation principles, production-based and consumption-based, are established, and their effects on pollution emissions distribution between pig production and marketing areas are comparatively analyzed. Secondly, the economic impact of consumption-based environmental taxes is estimated from inter-provincial and rural–urban perspectives under the current tax mechanism. Thirdly, a new alternative tax rate aligned with inter-provincial pig consumption levels is proposed based on the consumption principle. By comparing alternative tax systems, the potential impact of the current environmental tax on the regional economic burden is analyzed. The results highlighted that a production-based tax system resulted in 83% of regions experiencing varying degrees of implicit emission transfers, and a consumption-based tax system helped coordinate the environmental economic burden between pig production and marketing regions. Additionally, a linear relationship between tax rates and pork consumption expenditure not only alleviated the overall economic burden, leading to tax savings in 30% of regions, but also increased the national environmental revenue from the pig farming industry, resulting in a remarkable 147% rise in overall environmental tax revenue. These findings provide theoretical support for adjusting responsibility and economic burden through environmental tax modifications, facilitating the establishment of a compensation mechanism for the benefits between pig production and marketing areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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18 pages, 1361 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioremediation of Battery Scrap Waste Contaminated Soils Using Coco Grass (Cyperus rotundus L.): A Prediction Modeling Study for Cadmium and Lead Phytoextraction

by Arwa A. AL-Huqail, Mostafa A. Taher, Ivan Širić, Madhumita Goala, Bashir Adelodun, Kyung Sook Choi, Piyush Kumar, Vinod Kumar, Pankaj Kumar and Ebrahem M. Eid

Agriculture 2023, 13(7), 1411; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13071411 - 16 Jul 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2202

Abstract

With the increasing demand for electronic devices that use batteries, e-waste is also becoming a major threat to the environment. Battery e-waste contains hazardous heavy metals that affect the health of the soil ecosystem. Thus, the present study evaluates the cadmium (Cd) and [...] Read more.

With the increasing demand for electronic devices that use batteries, e-waste is also becoming a major threat to the environment. Battery e-waste contains hazardous heavy metals that affect the health of the soil ecosystem. Thus, the present study evaluates the cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) phytoextraction potential of coco grass (Cyperus rotundus L.) grown in soils contaminated with battery scrap waste (BSW). Pot experiments were conducted to grow C. rotundus under different treatments (0%: control, T1: 1%, T2: 2%, T3: 3%, and T4: 4%) of BSW mixed with soil (w/w). The results showed that BSW mixing significantly (p < 0.05) increased the physicochemical properties and heavy metal (Cd and Pb) content in the soil. BSW mixing resulted in a reduction in growth and biochemical traits of C. rotundus and an increase in oxidative stress enzymes with an increase in BSW dose. The Pearson correlation studies also showed that soil HM concentration had a negative influence on the growth and biochemical parameters of C. rotundus. The bioaccumulation and translocation factor analysis showed that C. rotundus was a hyperaccumulator plant with a maximum accumulation of Cd and Pb (38.81 and 109.06 mg·kg⁻¹) in root parts followed by the whole plant (277.43 and 76.10 mg·kg⁻¹) and shoot (21.30 and 22.65 mg·kg⁻¹) parts. Moreover, predictive models based on multiple linear regression (MLR) and artificial neural network (ANN) approaches were developed for Cd and Pb uptake by C. rotundus. Mathematical modeling results showed that soil properties were useful to construct quality MLR and ANN models with good determination coefficient (R² > 0.98), model efficiency (ME > 0.99), and low root mean square error (RMSE < 5.72). However, the fitness results of the ANN models performed better compared with those of the MLR models. Overall, this study presents an efficient and sustainable strategy to eradicate hazardous HMs by growing C. rotundus on BSW-contaminated soils and reducing its environmental and health consequences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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17 pages, 2411 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Ecological Risk Assessment of the Agricultural Area under a High Anthropopressure Based on Chemical, Ecotoxicological and Ecological Indicators

by Agnieszka Klimkowicz-Pawlas, Bożena Smreczak and Barbara Maliszewska-Kordybach

Agriculture 2023, 13(7), 1353; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13071353 - 5 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1528

Abstract

Agricultural land is often located close to highly urbanised/industrialised areas and is subject to continuous anthropogenic pressure associated with the emission of many pollutants, ultimately deposited in the soil. Most studies on ecological risk assessment have only analysed the total contaminants’ concentration, which [...] Read more.

Agricultural land is often located close to highly urbanised/industrialised areas and is subject to continuous anthropogenic pressure associated with the emission of many pollutants, ultimately deposited in the soil. Most studies on ecological risk assessment have only analysed the total contaminants’ concentration, which does not reflect their bioavailability or toxicity and often leads to an overestimation of risk. Therefore, in our study, we used an interdisciplinary approach, whereby the final conclusions about the risk in a given area are based on the integration of detailed data from chemical, ecotoxicological and ecological analysis. The research was carried out on agricultural land exposed to high levels of anthropopression for more than 100 years. Chemical measurements comprised both the total and bioavailable PAH content. A battery of bio-assays describing effects on soil retention and habitat function was used for ecotoxicity testing, and ecological indicators included enzymatic activity, respiration, microbial biomass, carbon mineralisation and nitrification. The integrated IntRisk index ranged from 0.19 to 0.94, and this was mainly due to high values of the chemical risk index, while the ecotoxicological and ecological results indicated no or low risk. The majority of the area (almost 90%) had acceptable risk levels, no/low risk (IntRisk < 0.5) at 57% of the sites and medium risk at 28% of the area. Very high unacceptable risk (IntRisk 0.77–0.94) was only at three sampling sites. The integration of data from a set of 15 indicators allowed us to derive quantitative risk indexes and delineate the limited area which needs additional action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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12 pages, 1471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Dynamic Tube Method for Measuring Ammonia Emissions after Liquid Manure Application

by Martin ten Huf and Hans-Werner Olfs

Agriculture 2023, 13(6), 1217; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061217 - 8 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1462

Abstract

Easy and inexpensive methods for measuring ammonia emissions in multi-plot field trials allow the comparison of several treatments with liquid manure application. One approach that might be suitable under these conditions is the dynamic tube method (DTM). Applying the DTM, a mobile chamber [...] Read more.

Easy and inexpensive methods for measuring ammonia emissions in multi-plot field trials allow the comparison of several treatments with liquid manure application. One approach that might be suitable under these conditions is the dynamic tube method (DTM). Applying the DTM, a mobile chamber system is placed on the soil surface, and the air volume within is exchanged at a constant rate for approx. 90 s. with an automated pump. This procedure is assumed to achieve an equilibrium ammonia concentration within the system. Subsequently, a measurement is performed using an ammonia-sensitive detector tube. Ammonia fluxes are calculated based on an empirical model that also takes into account the background ammonia concentration measured on unfertilized control plots. Between measurements on different plots, the chamber system is flushed with ambient air and cleaned with paper towels to minimize contamination with ammonia. The aim of this study was to determine important prerequisites and boundary conditions for the application of the DTM. We conducted a laboratory experiment to test if the ammonia concentration remains stable while performing a measurement. Furthermore, we investigated the cleaning procedure and the effect of potential ammonia carryover on cumulated emissions under field conditions following liquid manure application. The laboratory experiment indicated that the premeasurement phase to ensure a constant ammonia concentration is not sufficient. The concentration only stabilized after performing more than 100 pump strokes, with 20 pump strokes (lasting approximately 90 s) being the recommendation. However, the duration of performing a measurement can vary substantially, and linear conversion accounts for those differences, so a stable concentration is mandatory. Further experiments showed that the cleaning procedure is not sufficient under field conditions. Thirty minutes after performing measurements on high emitting plots, which resulted in an ammonia concentration of approx. 10 ppm in the chamber, we detected a residual concentration of 2 ppm. This contamination may affect measurements on plots with liquid manure application as well as on untreated control plots. In a field experiment with trailing hose application of liquid manure, we subsequently demonstrated that the calculation of cumulative ammonia emissions can vary by a factor of three, depending on the degree of chamber system contamination when measuring control plots. When the ammonia background values were determined by an uncontaminated chamber system that was used to measure only control plots, cumulative ammonia emissions were approximately 9 kg NH₃-N ha⁻¹. However, when ammonia background values were determined using the contaminated chamber system that was also used to measure on plots with liquid manure application, the calculation of cumulative ammonia losses indicated approximately 3 kg NH₃-N ha⁻¹. Based on these results, it can be concluded that a new empirical DTM calibration is needed for multi-plot field experiments with high-emitting treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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14 pages, 2755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Portable Spectrometer to Detect Chemical Contaminants in Irrigation Water

by Siti Nadhirah Zainurin, Wan Zakiah Wan Ismail, Wan Aina Nadhirah Wan Azlan, Khairul Nabilah Zainul Ariffin and Wan Maryam Wan Ahmad Kamil

Agriculture 2023, 13(6), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13061202 - 6 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2564

Abstract

Water pollution is a critical issue since it can severely affect health and the environment. The purpose of the study is to develop a portable spectrometer (ESP32-based spectrometer) to detect chemical contaminants in irrigation water by observing the light absorbance of contaminants. ESP32 [...] Read more.

Water pollution is a critical issue since it can severely affect health and the environment. The purpose of the study is to develop a portable spectrometer (ESP32-based spectrometer) to detect chemical contaminants in irrigation water by observing the light absorbance of contaminants. ESP32 and a light sensor (photodiode) were respectively, used as the main controller and detector of the portable spectrometer. It was developed based on optical dispersion and Beer–Lambert law theory. The light absorbance of different types of contaminants was displayed in a Blynk application for real-time monitoring. The samples were also tested using a lab-based spectroscopy method, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrometer. The spectral range of the measurement is from 350 nm to 700 nm and the standard error of the ESP32-based spectrometer is from 0.01 to 0.05. Five water samples were tested, consisting of ammonium nitrate, organic pesticide, zinc oxide and two different reservoirs used for irrigation. The absorption peaks of the ammonium nitrate and organic pesticide are 363 nm and 361 nm, respectively. Zinc oxide shows the absorbance peak at 405 nm, whereas both reservoirs show absorbance peaks lie in the region from 300 nm to 370 nm. Therefore, this study shows that different types of contaminants can absorb light only at specific wavelength regions by considering the concentration of samples. The developed ESP32-based spectrometer can be applied for on-site water quality monitoring as it is portable, light, simple and can be monitored in real time using multiple devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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22 pages, 869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Livelihood Determine Attitude? The Impact of Farmers’ Livelihood Capital on the Performance of Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution Management: An Empirical Investigation in Yilong Lake Basin, China

by Ning Zhou, Fanglei Zhong and Yanjie Yin

Agriculture 2023, 13(5), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13051036 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2046

Abstract

Agricultural non-point source pollution is intricately connected to the rural population’s production and lifestyle. The heterogeneous composition of livelihood capital results in varied livelihood types, influencing the farmers’ attitudes and perceptions of the treatment projects. This ultimately causes discrepancies in the farmers’ evaluation [...] Read more.

Agricultural non-point source pollution is intricately connected to the rural population’s production and lifestyle. The heterogeneous composition of livelihood capital results in varied livelihood types, influencing the farmers’ attitudes and perceptions of the treatment projects. This ultimately causes discrepancies in the farmers’ evaluation of agricultural non-point source pollution control. In this study, a participatory evaluation method was employed to evaluate the performance of agricultural non-point source pollution control projects in the Yilong Lake Watershed of Yunnan Province and analyze the underlying reasons for the differing performance evaluations. The findings revealed that pure farmers’ performance evaluation value for agricultural non-point source pollution control projects in Yilong Lake Basin was 0.4811 (with the full mark being 1), with a general evaluation grade. Part-time business households had a performance evaluation value of 0.5969, also with a general evaluation grade, while non-farmers had a performance evaluation value of 0.7057, with a good evaluation grade. The performance evaluation value ranked from highest to lowest is non-farmer > part-time farmer > pure farmer. The main factor affecting the variation in farmers’ performance evaluation is the key index of different livelihood capital. If pollution control projects can promote the adjustment of farmers’ livelihood capital types, it can enhance not only the performance evaluation degree of farmers, but also the sustainability of farmers’ livelihoods and increase their adaptability to livelihood risks. Therefore, pollution control projects should consider farmers’ livelihood capital types and be implemented accurately to improve farmers’ satisfaction and sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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18 pages, 9774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of a Quality-Specific Environmental Risk Index for the Location of Hives in Areas with Different Pollution Impacts

by Daniel Signorelli, Luigi Jacopo D’Auria, Antonio Di Stasio, Alfonso Gallo, Augusto Siciliano, Mauro Esposito, Alessandra De Felice and Giuseppe Rofrano

Agriculture 2023, 13(5), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13050998 - 30 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1875

Abstract

Honeybees and hive products have long been recognized as excellent bio-indicators, as they provide valuable information on the state of the environments concerned. As yet, however, no tool is capable of contextually assessing the level of pollution of different environmental matrices in order [...] Read more.

Honeybees and hive products have long been recognized as excellent bio-indicators, as they provide valuable information on the state of the environments concerned. As yet, however, no tool is capable of contextually assessing the level of pollution of different environmental matrices in order to create maps of areas in which to place hives. In this paper, a possible method of creating a regional map to support the implementation of targeted monitoring plans on beekeeping is described. We obtained and identified related-activity pressure factors, which were subsequently combined by means of a multi-criteria approach through the analytic hierarchy process method (AHP). The different levels used were drawn up by first attributing qualitative values; these were converted into quantitative values through scoring elaborations and pair comparisons and then elaborated and standardized by means of different techniques in order to create an index with a spatial distribution of five risk classes throughout the region. To verify the correct execution of the procedure, a consistency ratio method was implemented on this index and validated the reliability of the application as the main source of information for sampling activities on beekeeping products. Creation of the specific environmental risk index enabled us to construct a map displaying the areas of greatest impact on beekeeping activities and a representation of the cumulative effects generated by the different pollutants in the air, water, soil and subsoil compartments. This index may, therefore, constitute an essential tool to support beekeepers in choosing sites for their apiaries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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16 pages, 630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Will Social Network Relationship Significantly Enhance Farmers’ Participation in the Supply of Small Water-Saving Irrigation and Water Conservancy Facilities in China?

by Lei Wang and Yiwen Zhao

Agriculture 2023, 13(1), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13010216 - 14 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

The supply level of irrigation and water conservancy is related to the utilization efficiency of water resources, the production level of farmers, and the supply quality of agricultural products, especially relating to national food security and stability. Based on 1169 pieces of data [...] Read more.

The supply level of irrigation and water conservancy is related to the utilization efficiency of water resources, the production level of farmers, and the supply quality of agricultural products, especially relating to national food security and stability. Based on 1169 pieces of data collected from field surveys in three provinces of China in 2019, an evaluation system of social network relationships was constructed from five aspects: network scale, network tightness, trust and commitment, social atmosphere and sense of belonging, and social participation. These five aspects are the channels for farmers to obtain information. A binary logistic model was used to analyze the impact of the social network relationships on farmers’ participation in small water-saving irrigation and water conservancy facilities supply, and the key factors affecting farmers’ behavior were selected. The purpose of this study is to further improve the evaluation system of social network relationships and the study of the effect of social network relationships on farmers’ water-saving behaviors, enrich relevant theories and provide a feasible path for the implementation of water-saving irrigation from the macro initiative level. The results show that higher network closeness and policy satisfaction, water management experience, agricultural insurance, strong family decision-making power, etc., will reduce the likelihood of farmers participating in the supply of small water-saving irrigation and water conservancy facilities; increasing network compactness will increase the possibility of farmers’ participation in the supply; trust and commitment, social ethos and sense of belonging, social participation, and other factors have no significant influence on farmer participation behavior. It can be seen that network tightness and network scale play an important role in the behavior of farmers’ participation in public affairs. In conclusion, social network relationships will affect farmers’ participation in the supply of irrigation and water conservancy facilities, but different dimensions have different influences on it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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13 pages, 7859 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination in Soil and Two Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Varieties Irrigated with Paper Mill Effluent

by Arwa A. AL-Huqail, Pankaj Kumar, Ebrahem M. Eid, Bashir Adelodun, Sami Abou Fayssal, Jogendra Singh, Ashish Kumar Arya, Madhumita Goala, Vinod Kumar and Ivan Širić

Agriculture 2022, 12(11), 1864; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111864 - 6 Nov 2022

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 3551

Abstract

Heavy metal pollution from industrial wastewaters has become an issue of global concern. These wastewaters are frequently used for inland irrigation which possess a serious risk of heavy metal contamination of both soil and cultivated crops. The problem is more common in developing [...] Read more.

Heavy metal pollution from industrial wastewaters has become an issue of global concern. These wastewaters are frequently used for inland irrigation which possess a serious risk of heavy metal contamination of both soil and cultivated crops. The problem is more common in developing countries like India where industrial wastewaters are often discharged without appropriate treatments. Therefore, this study aimed at assessing the impact of paper mill effluent for irrigation on the growth, productivity, and heavy metal accumulation potential of two rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties (PB-1121 and PR-121). Water, soil, and rice crop samples were obtained from the vicinity of Saharanpur city, Uttar Pradesh, India, and subsequently analyzed for selected physicochemical and heavy metal parameters. Results showed that paper mill effluent and nearby Kali River water had significant (p < 0.05) loads of pollutants that impacted the soil properties. Moreover, the maximum plant height (123.48 ± 4.86 and 98.83 ± 2.02 cm); total chlorophyll (6.70 ± 0.25 and 6.64 ± 0.17 mg/g); leaf carotenoids (0.67 ± 0.08 and 0.63 ± 0.05 mg/g); starch content (71.08 ± 2.05 and 72.60 ± 1.63%); amylose content (25.10 ± 1.32 and 20.28 ± 1.24%); crop yield (4270.20 ± 75.12 and 5830.58 ± 63.10 kg/ha); and straw yield (5472.05 ± 93.90 and 6683.76 ± 61.26 kg/ha) of PB-1121 and PR-121, respectively, were observed using Kali River water irrigation source as compared to paper mill effluent and borewell water. The order of heavy metal accumulation in rice straw and grain followed: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu > Cr > Cd. Similarly, the bioaccumulation factors for heavy metals in rice straw and grain were observed as >1 and <1, respectively. Moreover, the target hazard quotient (THQ) showed that there was no potential health risk of heavy metal in rice irrigated with contaminated water supply except for the PR-121 variety irrigated with Kali River water where the health risk index (HRI) value exceeded the limit (>1). As a result, the findings of this study provide useful information about the current state of heavy metal pollution and the health risks associated with rice crops irrigated with contaminated water sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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11 pages, 3649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Bio-Preparations to Reduce Ammonia Emissions from Cattle Farming: Effects of Manure Storage Time and Ventilation Intensity

by Reda Mažeikienė and Rolandas Bleizgys

Agriculture 2022, 12(10), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101626 - 6 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2150

Abstract

Ammonia emissions are both an environmental and health issue. Biological preparations (also known as biopreparations) have attracted interests as a tool to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock. However, little is known about their effectiveness in modulating evaporating NH₃ from manure. The aim [...] Read more.

Ammonia emissions are both an environmental and health issue. Biological preparations (also known as biopreparations) have attracted interests as a tool to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock. However, little is known about their effectiveness in modulating evaporating NH₃ from manure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of one biopreparation product (MycroZyme© Micron Bio-Systems Ltd., Bridgwater, UK) by studying the dynamics of NH₃ gas evolution, taking into account factors such as manure storage time (fresh or stored) and the application method (sprayed or mixed). Experimental studies were performed with control manure (manure without biopreparation) and manure treated with the biopreparation. Data showed that the use of biopreparation slowed down the ammonia emission from manure, so the ammonia concentration in the wind tunnel decreased on average from 21.69 ± 0.9 to 14.43 ± 1.5 ppm. The effect of the biopreparation on ammonia evaporation was higher in the presence of more intensive ammonia emission conditions; i.e., when the manure was fresh, there was no crust on the surface, and the airflow over the manure was intense, and there was a large gradient of ammonia concentration on the manure surface. Based on the obtained results, recommendations were made to reduce ammonia emissions in litter-less cowsheds, where liquid manure is stored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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21 pages, 5178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution, Pollution Characteristics, and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soils from a Typical Agricultural County, East China

by Linsong Yu, Hongbo Liu, Weidong Liu, Pinrui Qin, Jian Yu, Bing Zhou, Fugui Zhang, Ziwan Chen, Yuyan Zhao and Zeming Shi

Agriculture 2022, 12(10), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101565 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2010

Abstract

This study collected 1135 topsoil samples of cultivated land in Laiyang County, eastern China, to analyze the distribution, pollution and health risks of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn). The results show that: (1) the levels of eight [...] Read more.

This study collected 1135 topsoil samples of cultivated land in Laiyang County, eastern China, to analyze the distribution, pollution and health risks of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb and Zn). The results show that: (1) the levels of eight heavy metals at some sites were higher than the risk screening values in China, and there was heavy metal pollution. (2) An improved geoaccumulation index was used to evaluate soil pollution. The average value of I_geo before and after improvement was 0.32 (I_ml, no pollution to medium pollution) and −0.04 (I_ol, no pollution), respectively. (3) Hg and Cd were identified as the main contributors to ecological risk in this study, with a cumulative ecological risk contribution percentage > 65%. The results of the potential ecological risk index (PERI) show that 9.3% of the sampling sites were considered to have moderate ecological risk. (4) As, Pb, Ni and Cu made a contribution of >95% in terms of non-carcinogenic risk to adults and children through different exposure routes, and different soil intake routes posed no non-carcinogenic risk to adults; there was a sampling site with HQ_Children > 1, which was consistent with the non-carcinogenic risk site, indicating that children in this location and surrounding areas are more likely to face dual health risks. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the risk management of heavy metals in the study area in order to safely use soil resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Environmental Pollution, Risk Assessment, and Control)

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