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Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development

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A special issue of Agriculture (ISSN 2077-0472). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 January 2025) | Viewed by 12506

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Dr. Mustafa Ucgul

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Faculty of Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
Interests: discrete element method (DEM); agricultural machinery design; tillage; soil mechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the ever-changing world of agriculture, marked by the constant need to produce more food while managing resources and sustainability, the creation of better farming equipment plays a crucial role. Embracing technology and innovation is key to tackling these challenges, and computer simulation stands out as a powerful tool in this quest.

This Special Issue, titled "Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development", explores the broad landscape of applying computer simulation techniques in agriculture. We are inviting researchers, engineers, and practitioners to contribute their knowledge and experience in this dynamic field.

We welcome original research articles and comprehensive reviews covering various topics, including advanced modelling and simulation (DEM, FEM, CFD, SPH), performance optimization, structural analysis, energy efficiency, human–machine interaction, and validation and verification.

This Special Issue is not just a collection of papers; it is a driving force in pushing the boundaries of agricultural machinery design and development through computer simulation.

Dr. Mustafa Ucgul
Guest Editor

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agriculture is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

DEM
FEM
SPH
CFD
computer simulation
agricultural machinery

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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25 pages, 6876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ultrasonic Ridge-Tracking Method Based on Limiter Sliding Window Filter and Fuzzy Pure Pursuit Control for Ridge Transplanter

by Wei Liu, Jinhao Zhou, Yutong Liu, Tengfei Zhang, Meng Yan, Ji Chen, Chunjian Zhou, Jianping Hu and Xinxin Chen

Agriculture 2024, 14(10), 1713; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101713 - 29 Sep 2024

Viewed by 941

Abstract

There are various types of fruits and vegetables that need to be planted on ridges. In order to allow for seedlings with a certain row space and seedling space, the ridge transplanter should be able to track along the ridge. Therefore, an ultrasonic ridge-tracking method and system were developed to let the ridge transplanter track the ridge accurately. The ultrasonic ridge-tracking method mainly contains a limiter sliding window filtering algorithm and a fuzzy look-ahead distance decision model. The limiter sliding window filtering algorithm was proposed to filter the abnormal measuring results to avoid disoperation of the steering mechanism. Moreover, the fuzzy look-ahead distance decision model was proposed to determine the optimal look-ahead distance in order to obtain a desirable tracking performance. Additionally, a comparison experiment of the proposed ultrasonic ridge-tracking method and the universal pure pursuit method was conducted. The experimental results show that the greatest mean absolute errors of the lateral deviations of the ultrasonic ridge-tracking method and universal pure pursuit were 10.56 mm and 13.11 mm. The greatest maximum absolute errors of the lateral deviations of the ultrasonic ridge-tracking method and universal pure pursuit were 18.87 mm and 23.23 mm. In addition, the greatest root mean square error of the lateral deviation of the ultrasonic ridge-tracking method and the universal pure pursuit method were 13.52 mm and 15.66 mm. According to the ridge-tracking performance of the proposed ultrasonic ridge-tracking method, it can be used in practical transplanting conditions. Moreover, in other fields, robots or intelligent machinery can also apply the proposed ultrasonic ridge-tracking method to track objects similar to ridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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24 pages, 16017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design and Tests of a Pulsating Roll-Cleaning Device for Tiger Nuts

by Zhijun Lv, Wanzhang Wang, Dekun Yang, Xun He, Zhe Qu, Wenzhuo Jing, Yong Mei, Huinan Huang, Baohao Su and Yangfan Zhuang

Agriculture 2024, 14(10), 1673; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101673 - 25 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 656

Abstract

Aiming at the problems of low efficiency and poor cleaning quality in the cleaning process of harvested tiger nuts (Cyperus esculentus) with lots of soil and fibrous roots on the surface to meet the demand for mechanized harvesting of tiger nuts in the Yellow River, Huaihe River, and Haihe River regions in China, a pulsating roll-cleaning device was devised. The analytical software for meshing the transmission of pitch curves of elliptical gears with arbitrary orders was developed based on Visual Basic 6.0, thus obtaining a pair of elliptical gears that meet the steady transmission requirement. The meshing of this pair of elliptical gears enables pulsating variable-speed rotation of a brush roller, which reduces the breakage and accumulation of tiger nuts. Circular screen holes are distributed uniformly on the upper and lower cylindrical walls. Tiger nuts are cleaned under friction with the brush roller and the circular screen holes, while residues (including soil) fall in the settlement and accumulation tank through the screen holes, which realizes the rapid discharge and collection of residues, including soil, and reduction of dust. The separation process of soil from tiger nuts in the cleaning device was studied using RecurDyn 2023-EDEM 2022 simulation software. Taking the rate of rotation of the brush roller, order of elliptical gears, and eccentricity of the elliptical gears as the test factors while taking the cleaning efficiency, breakage rate, and impurity rate as the evaluation indices, a test bench for the cleaning performance of tiger nuts was established. Design-Expert V8.0.6 was applied to carry out a three-factor three-level Box–Behnken design (BBD) using response surface methodology (RSM), thus ascertaining the optimal parameter combination of the cleaning device. When the rate of rotation of the brush roller, order of elliptical gears, and eccentricity of the elliptical gears are, separately, 280 rpm, 2, and 0.122, the cleaning efficiency, breakage rate, and impurity rate of tiger nuts are 1.83 t·h⁻¹, 0.15%, and 0.16%, respectively. This satisfies the cleaning requirement of tiger nuts and provides a basis for the design of cleaning machines for tiger nuts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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22 pages, 6608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Jet Distance Enhancement Device for Blueberry Harvesting Robots Based on the Dual-Ring Model

by Wenxin Li, Hao Yin, Yuhuan Li, Xiaohong Liu, Jiang Liu and Han Wang

Agriculture 2024, 14(9), 1563; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091563 - 9 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1032

Abstract

In China, most blueberry varieties are characterized by tightly clustered fruits, which pose challenges for achieving precise and non-destructive automated harvesting. This complexity limits the design of robots for this task. Therefore, this paper proposes adding a jetting step during harvesting to separate fruit clusters and increase the operational space for mechanical claws. First, a combined approach of flow field analysis and pressure-sensitive experiments was employed to establish design criteria for the number, diameter, and inclination angle parameters of two types of nozzles: flat tip and round tip. Furthermore, fruit was introduced, and a fluid–structure coupling method was employed to calculate the deformation of fruit stems. Simultaneously, a mechanical analysis was conducted to quantify the relationship between jet characteristics and separation gaps. Simulation and pressure-sensitive experiments show that as the number of holes increases and their diameter decreases, the nozzle’s convergence becomes stronger. The greater the inclination angle of the circular nozzle holes, the more the gas diverges. The analysis of the output characteristics of the working section indicates that the 8-hole 40° round nozzle is the optimal solution. At an air compressor working pressure of 0.5 MPa, force analysis and simulation results both show that it can increase the picking space for the mechanical claw by about 5–7 mm without damaging the blueberries in the jet area. The final field experiments show that the mean distance for Type I (mature fruit) is 5.41 mm, for Type II (red fruit) is 6.42 mm, and for Type III (green fruit) is 5.43 mm. The short and curved stems of the green fruit are less effective, but the minimum distance of 4.71 mm is greater than the claw wall thickness, meeting the design requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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22 pages, 8540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experiment of Planting Mechanism of Automatic Transplanter for Densely Planted Vegetables

by Jiawei Shi, Jianping Hu, Jing Li, Wei Liu, Rencai Yue, Tengfei Zhang and Mengjiao Yao

Agriculture 2024, 14(8), 1357; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081357 - 14 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1434

Abstract

The planting mechanism of existing transplanters cannot meet the agronomic requirements of planting densely planted vegetables with multiple rows, small plant spacing, and small row spacing. In order to solve this current problem, an eight-row duckbill planting mechanism driven by a motor and a cylinder was designed. According to the agronomic guidance and mechanism design requirements for transplanting densely planted vegetable seedlings, this paper analyzes the working principle of the planting mechanism, establishes its kinematic theoretical model, and determines the structural parameters of the driving device and opening and closing device in the planting mechanism. Aimed at the problem of large planting resistance when eight-row planting end effectors of the planting mechanism are planting at the same time, based on the existing research, three duckbill planting end effectors with double incisions, four incisions, and conical structures were selected, and the planting process was simulated using an EDEM 2022-RecurDyn 2024 coupling simulation. The single-factor analysis method and the interactive factor Box–Behnken response surface analysis method were used. It is concluded that the duckbill end effector with double incisions has the smallest planting resistance, and the rationality of the mechanism design is preliminarily verified. A planting resistance measurement platform was built based on the STM32 platform and HX711 module, and a planting resistance test of the duckbill planting end effector was carried out to verify the correctness of the planting mechanism simulation results. The planting mechanism performance test was carried out, and the test results showed that the planting qualification rate of the prototype reached 96.62%, the planting spacing variation coefficient was only 3.55%, and the planting efficiency reached about 7135 plants/h, which met the agronomic requirements of small plant spacing and small row spacing for densely planted vegetables and verified the feasibility and practicality of the planting mechanism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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21 pages, 11805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Preliminary Experiment of Track Width Adjustment System for Sprayer Based on Integral Separated Fuzzy Proportional Integral Derivative Control Strategy

by Lu Tan, Mei Jia, Jin He, Xintong Su, Quanyu Wang, Hanyu Yang and Hang Li

Agriculture 2024, 14(8), 1247; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14081247 - 28 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1024

Abstract

Different agronomic requirements, production conditions, and crop species result in varying row spacings. To address the issue of seedling damage caused by pressure when a fixed track width sprayer operates in different row spacings and enhance the accuracy of track width adjustment, this study designed a track width adjustment system for a sprayer based on the agronomic requirements for field management during the early and mid-stages of corn growth and the entire growth period of wheat in Henan Province, China. The designed track width adjustment system for the sprayer comprised transmission mechanisms, telescopic track width adjustment mechanisms, and an electro-hydraulic control system. The control system achieved a precise track width adjustment by controlling the movement of the hydraulic cylinders through electrical signals, forming a closed-loop adjustment system with the aid of sensors. Four control schemes are proposed: classical PID, integral separated PID, fuzzy adaptive PID, and integral separated fuzzy PID. Simulation experiments were conducted using MATLAB to compare these schemes. The results indicated that the integral separated fuzzy PID exhibited the fastest response and highest steady-state accuracy. The performance of the track width adjustment system was validated through field experiments. The results demonstrate that the stability coefficient of variation for the track width adjustment was 3.04%, which is below the 10% threshold required by agricultural machinery standards. Additionally, the average error of the track width adjustment was 13.42 mm, indicating high precision and effectively reducing seedling compression damage during plant protection operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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16 pages, 6355 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Contact Force on an Apple Picking Robot End-Effector

by Hongwei Zhang, Wei Ji, Bo Xu and Xiaowei Yu

Agriculture 2024, 14(7), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14070996 - 25 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1297

Abstract

The quality of apple picking affects the sales of apples, and the grasping force of the end effector of an apple picking robot is very important for apple picking. It is easy to cause apple damage due to excessive contact force, or when the contact force is too small to grasp the apple. However, the current research lacks an analysis of the minimum stable grasping force of apples. Therefore, in order to realize the stable grasping of apples by the end-effector of a picking robot and reduce fruit damage, this study first analyzes the grasping stability of the end-effector based on the force closure theory, and comprehensively considers the force closure constraints, nonlinear friction cone constraints and the introduction of torque constraints. Next, the constraint conditions are processed using an obstacle function, and a penalty factor is introduced to construct an optimization model of the contact force distribution of the end-effector. Then, the improved Newton method is used to grasp and solve the contact force distribution model. Under the premise of selecting the penalty factor, the optimal contact force of grasping an apple is determined using a method of numerical example simulation analysis, and the validity of the solution is verified. In order to verify the reliability of the contact force distribution optimization model, the practical significance of the method for apple grasping is verified in an actual grasping experiment. The actual experiment shows that the method can provide the minimum stable grasping force to the end-effector to achieve stable grasping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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18 pages, 8997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parametric Design and Genetic Algorithm Optimization of a Natural Light Stereoscopic Cultivation Frame

by Dongdong Jia, Wengang Zheng, Xiaoming Wei, Wenzhong Guo, Qian Zhao and Guohua Gao

Agriculture 2024, 14(1), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14010084 - 30 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2013

Abstract

Vertical farming (VF) is an emerging cultivation frame that maximizes total plant production. However, the high energy-consuming artificial light sources for plants growing in the lower and middle layers significantly affect the sustainability of the current VF systems. To address the challenges of supplementary lighting energy consumption, this study explored and optimized the structural design of cultivation frames in VF using parametric modeling, a light simulation platform, and a genetic algorithm. The optimal structure was stereoscopic, including four groups of cultivation trough units in the lower layer, two groups in the middle layer, and one group in the upper layer, with a layer height of 685 mm and a spacing of 350 mm between the cultivation trough units. A field experiment demonstrated lettuce in the middle and lower layers yielded 82.9% to 92.6% in the upper layer. The proposed natural light stereoscopic cultivation frame (NLSCF) for VF was demonstrated to be feasible through simulations and on-site lettuce cultivation experiments without supplementary lighting. These findings confirmed that the NLSCF could effectively reduce the energy consumption of supplemental lighting with the ensure of lettuce’s regular growth. Moreover, the designing processes of the cultivation frame may elucidate further research on the enhancement of the sustainability and efficiency of VF systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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16 pages, 18488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of the Corn Kernel Breakage Rate Based on an Improved Mask Region-Based Convolutional Neural Network

by Hongmei Zhang, Zhijie Li, Zishang Yang, Chenhui Zhu, Yinhai Ding, Pengchang Li and Xun He

Agriculture 2023, 13(12), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13122257 - 10 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1330

Abstract

Real-time knowledge of kernel breakage during corn harvesting plays a significant role in the adjustment of operational parameters of corn kernel harvesters. (1) Transfer learning by initializing the DenseNet121 network with pre-trained weights for training and validating a dataset of corn kernels was adopted. Additionally, the feature extraction capability of DenseNet121 was improved by incorporating the attention mechanism of a Convolutional Block Attention Module (CBAM) and a Feature Pyramid Network (FPN) structure. (2) The quality of intact and broken corn kernels and their pixels were found to be coupled, and a linear regression model was established using the least squares method. The results of the test showed that: (1) The MAP^b50 and MAP^m50 of the improved Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (RCNN) model were 97.62% and 98.70%, in comparison to the original Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (RCNN) model, which were improved by 0.34% and 0.37%, respectively; the backbone FLOPs and Params were 3.09 GMac and 9.31 M, and the feature extraction time was 206 ms; compared to the original backbone, these were reduced by 3.87 GMac and 17.32 M, respectively. The training of the obtained prediction weights for the detection of a picture of the corn kernel took 76 ms, so compared to the Mask RCNN model, it was reduced by 375 ms; based on the concept of transfer learning, the improved Mask RCNN model converged twice as quickly with the loss function using pre-training weights than the loss function without pre-training weights during training. (2) The coefficients of determination R² of the two models, when the regression models of the pixels and the quality of intact and broken corn kernels were analyzed, were 0.958 and 0.992, respectively. These findings indicate a strong correlation between the pixel characteristics and the quality of corn kernels. The improved Mask RCNN model was used to segment mask pixels to calculate the corn kernel breakage rate. The verified error between the machine vision and the real breakage rate ranged from −0.72% to 0.65%, and the detection time of the corn kernel breakage rate was only 76 ms, which could meet the requirements for real-time detection. According to the test results, the improved Mask RCNN method had the advantages of a fast detection speed and high accuracy, and can be used as a data basis for adjusting the operation parameters of corn kernel harvesters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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Review

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28 pages, 5603 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Discrete Element Method to Potato Harvesting Machinery: A Review

by Yuanman Yue, Qian Zhang, Boyang Dong and Jin Li

Agriculture 2025, 15(3), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15030315 - 31 Jan 2025

Viewed by 311

Abstract

The Discrete Element Method (DEM) is an innovative numerical computational approach. This method is employed to study and resolve the motion patterns of particles within discrete systems, contact mechanics properties, mechanisms of separation processes, and the relationships between contact forces and energy. Agricultural machinery involves the interactions between machinery and soil, crops, and other systems. Designing agricultural machinery can be equivalent to solving problems in discrete systems. The DEM has been widely applied in research on agricultural machinery design and mechanized harvesting of crops. It has also provided an important theoretical research approach for the design and selection of operating parameters, as well as the structural optimization of potato harvesting machinery. This review first analyzes and summarizes the current global potato industry situation, planting scale, and yield. Subsequently, it analyzes the challenges facing the development of the potato industry. The results show that breeding is the key to improving potato varieties, harvesting is the main stage where potato damage occurs, and reprocessing is the main process associated with potato waste. Second, an overview of the basic principles of DEM, contact models, and mechanical parameters is provided, along with an introduction to the simulation process using the EDEM software. Third, the application of the DEM to mechanized digging, transportation, collection, and separation of potatoes from the soil is reviewed. The accuracy of constructing potato and soil particle models and the rationality of the contact model selection are found to be the main factors affecting the results of discrete element simulations. Finally, the challenges of using the DEM for research on potato harvesting machinery are presented, and a summary and outlook for the future development of the DEM are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

34 pages, 11287 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Computer Simulation Technology in the Development of Tractor Transmission Systems

by Ya Li, Xiaohan Chen, Xiaorong Han, Ning Xu, Zhiqiang Zhai, Kai Lu, Youfeng Zhu and Guangming Wang

Agriculture 2024, 14(9), 1547; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091547 - 6 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1018

Abstract

Tractors are the most important agricultural power machinery. With the development of tractors toward large-scale and electrification, the design of modern tractor transmission systems increasingly relies on computer simulation technology. However, tractor transmission systems, especially power-shift transmissions and CVTs, are highly complex industrial products that involve specialized knowledge from multiple disciplines. Engineers and researchers find it difficult to choose the correct mathematical model and grasp the trend of technological development when applying simulation technology. To address this issue, we conducted a systematic review of the field and carried out the following work: First, the types and basic principles of tractor transmission systems were introduced; Second, the modeling methods and applications of computer simulation technology in the structural optimization, power-shift control, and energy saving of tractor transmission systems were reviewed; Finally, the method of obtaining simulation parameters through system identification was introduced. Although computer simulation technology has been applied in the development of all tractor transmission systems, there are still some issues that need attention, such as the lack of established shift quality evaluation indicators and driving cycles suitable for tractors, which are crucial for the reliability of simulation results but are rarely studied. These issues need to be addressed in future work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Agriculture Technology—Using Computer Simulation for Agricultural Machinery Design and Development)

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