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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Mechanical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2022) | Viewed by 48631

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Jerzy A. Sładek

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Coordinate Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Kraków, Poland
Interests: mechanical engineering; coordinate metrology and its applications in production engineering; micro- and nanodimensional metrology; calibration methods for coordinate systems; fringe optics systems and photogrammetry; metrological aspects of reverse engineering; metrology in industrial design and Industry 4.0; quality engineering and quality management systems
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Prof. Dr. Ksenia Ostrowska

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Coordinate Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, al. Jana Pawla II 37, 31-864 Krakow/Cracow, Poland
Interests: coordinate measuring technique; contact and contactless measurements; simulation and modeling of measuring systems, especially those with open kinematic chain; coordinate metrology in medicine and bioengineering; in-process/in-line metrology
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Prof. Dr. Adam Gąska

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Guest Editor

Laboratory of Coordinate Metrology, Mechanical Department, Cracow University of Technology, Al. Jana Pawla II 37, 31-864 Krakow, Poland
Interests: coordinate metrology (in scales ranging from nanometers to large volume objects); in-process metrology; coordinate measuring systems (including portable measuring systems and computed tomography systems); measurement accuracy; simulation and numerical methods in metrology (especially the Monte Carlo method); methods for identifying and correcting geometric errors of machines
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Manufacturing metrology is strictly bound to developments in the industrial sector. Discoveries in the field of theoretical physics and materials science result in the emergence of new manufacturing techniques, pushing forward the existing possibilities of industrial production. One of the main challenges in this field, which is the condition of its further development, is the problem of finding appropriate methods and tools for effective assessment of the quality of manufactured products.

The changes that took place in metrology in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, primarily the normalization of the system of units of measurement and the development of measurement standards and tools, were some of the most important factors enabling the introduction of mass production, which marked the beginning of the second industrial revolution. However, it was only the application of computer techniques in manufacturing technologies that initiated a real revolution in the field of measuring systems (the third industrial revolution). Now, we are facing another industrial revolution, which creates a need to bring inspection systems close to manufacturing processes and implement measurement methods and systems that produce information-rich results accurately and quickly.

We invite contributions to this Special Issue on topics including, but not limited to, the following areas:

Metrology systems integrated into manufacturing tools and lines:

In-process control,
In-situ measurements,
In-line inspection systems;

Optical metrology in manufacturing:

Vision-based measurement systems,
Fringe optics,
Laser triangulation;
Metrology in production of nano elements;
Large-volume metrology;
Coordinate measuring technique;
Portable measuring systems;
Metrology systems in Industry 4.0;

Traceability of manufacturing metrology systems:

Calibration and verification,
Uncertainty estimation,
Identification and correction of error sources,
System accuracy modeling.

Prof. Dr. Jerzy A. Sładek
Prof. Dr. Ksenia Ostrowska
Prof. Dr. Adam Gąska
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Manufacturing metrology
optical metrology
in-process control
in-situ/in-line measurements
coordinate metrology
Industry 4.0
portable measuring systems
measurement uncertainty
error sources
calibration and verification
traceability

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 5290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of the Machined Surface Diameter by a Laser Triangulation Sensor and Optimalization of Turning Conditions Based on the Diameter Deviation and Tool Wear by GRA and ANOVA

by Jozef Jurko, Martin Miškiv-Pavlík, Vratislav Hladký, Peter Lazorík, Peter Michalík and Igor Petruška

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(10), 5266; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12105266 - 23 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2071

Abstract

One of the most important operations in the technological production process is the inspection of the manufactured product. The gradual wear of the tool affects the achievement of the required quality of the functional surfaces. In this research, we present the results of measuring the diameter deviation with a new generation laser triangulation sensor (LTS). At the same time, we have performed parametric optimization of several multi-responses, such as insert wear on the VB_B flank side of cutting edge and diameter deviation Δ_d for a C45 steel sample during dry turning and using a sintered carbide insert, using the method of grey relational analysis (GRA) in combination with the Taguchi L16 orthogonal array. The optimal setting of input factors for multi-response parameters is a_p 4-f 4-v_c 1 i.e., depth of cut 0.5 mm, feed 0.4 mm per revolution, and a cutting speed of 70 m/min. At the same time, we present an evaluation of the significance of input factors using the method ANOVA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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16 pages, 6887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Investigation for Angle Measurement Based on Femtosecond Maker Fringe

by Kuangyi Li, Wijayanti Dwi Astuti, Ryo Sato, Hiraku Matsukuma and Wei Gao

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(7), 3702; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073702 - 6 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2089

Abstract

This paper proposes to utilize a femtosecond Maker fringe for angular measurement to expand the measurement range by using the characteristic of the multiple visible peaks in the Maker fringe. Four different z-cut nonlinear materials and three different polarization combinations of SHG were considered in the study, and various theoretical results are calculated for both the intensity-based angle measurement and the frequency-domain angle measurement. As a result, the p-s polarization shows a significant angle dependence in the range of ±20° compared with the other polarization. In addition, the BBO and KDP are superior to the other investigated materials because of the relatively higher sensitivity and visibility. The refractive index difference was introduced in this paper, and it was applied to explain the angle measurement performance of the Maker fringe successfully. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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19 pages, 349 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Sensitivity Analysis for Gaussian-Associated Features

by Alistair Forbes

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 2808; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12062808 - 9 Mar 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1294

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the evaluation of the uncertainties associated with Gaussian-associated features following the GUM methodology. We show how sensitivity matrices necessary for a GUM uncertainty evaluation can be calculated and how the variance matrices associated with the feature parameters can be estimated for a range of complete and partial features common in engineering. Example results are given in tables that allow practitioners to estimate, a priori, the uncertainties associated with fitted parameters, given a proposed measurement strategy for the case in which the point-cloud variance matrix is a multiple of the identity matrix. The sensitivity matrices can be used to evaluate the uncertainties for associated features for more general point-cloud variance matrices. All the calculations involved are direct and involve no optimization or Monte Carlo sampling; they can be implemented in spreadsheet software, for example. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

13 pages, 3965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inline Optical Coherence Tomography for Multidirectional Process Monitoring in a Coaxial LMD-w Process

by Charlotte Stehmar, Marius Gipperich, Markus Kogel-Hollacher, Alfredo Velazquez Iturbide and Robert H. Schmitt

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(5), 2701; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052701 - 5 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3914

Abstract

Within additive manufacturing, process stability is still an unsolved challenge. Process instabilities result from the complexity of laser deposition processes and the dependence of the quality of the workpiece on a variety of factors in the process. Because a stable process is dependent on many different factors, permanent precise inline monitoring is required. The suitability of the optical coherence tomography (OCT) measuring system integrated into a wire-based laser metal deposition (LMD-w) process for the task of process control results from its high resolution and high measuring speed, and from coaxial integration into the laser process, which allows for a spatially and temporally resolved representation of the weld bead topography during the process. To realize this, a spectral domain OCT (SD-OCT) system was developed and integrated into the beam path of the process laser. With the aid of suitable optics, circular scanning was realized, which allows for the 3D depth information to be displayed independently of the direction of movement of the processing head and the centrally running wire. OCT makes it possible to detect the process-typical topography deviations caused by process variations and thus paves the way for adaptive process control that could make additive laser processes more reproducible and precise in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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19 pages, 11345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Measurement Standard for Surface Roughness on Involute Gears

by Felix Steinmeyer, Dorothee Hüser, Rudolf Meeß and Martin Stein

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(21), 10303; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112110303 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2543

Abstract

Although manufacturers of coordinate measurement systems and gear measurement systems already provide instruments that enable an end-of-line-monitoring of the roughness properties of gears, the roughness measurement on gear flanks still lacks traceability with respect to the standardised SI-units. There is still a gap between well standardised roughness measurements on planar surfaces and gear measurements on involutes. This gap is bridged by a novel physical measurement standard (PMS), also referred to as material measure, for roughness measurements on involute gears that has been developed at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB). The necessary transformations between the systems of roughness and gear measurements have been implemented. The measurement standard itself represents calibrated roughness values for the parameters

R_{a}

R_{z}

R_{q}

R_{k}

R_{pk}

and

R_{vk}

and

Mr 1

and

Mr 2

. Furthermore, the PMS can be measured both with classic profilometers as well as gear measurement systems with integrated roughness probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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11 pages, 3688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Method for Accuracy Assessment of the Length Measurement Unit of Laser Tracking Systems

by Maciej Gruza, Adam Gąska, Jerzy A. Sładek, Slavenko M. Stojadinovic, Vidosav D. Majstorovic, Piotr Gąska and Wiktor Harmatys

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 9335; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199335 - 8 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2320

Abstract

Laser tracking systems are widely used in large-scale metrology of geometric quantities. Their importance is confirmed by the fact that one of the parts of the ISO 10360 series of standards has been devoted to the issue of assessing their accuracy (ISO 10360-10). A laser tracker is a device whose final measurement result is calculated using indications from various subsystems included in it, such as devices for measuring length and angle. The analysis of these individual impacts can be useful in creating simulation models of accuracy which, in regard to the Industry 4.0 concept, seem to be the most justified in terms of speed of operation and ease of use. For this reason, it may be particularly important to undertake research on the accuracy of this component in isolation from other factors affecting the measurement of the coordinates of the point. The article describes a method that allows separation of the length measurement error from the other components. The method uses a high-accuracy interferometer which is treated as a reference system that allows for the comparison of indications obtained using the tested distance measurement system. Thanks to the proposed method, it is possible to minimize errors from the optical system and other measuring systems. The use of a precise linear guide allows the reduction of errors related to the implementation of linear motion. The article presents the test method and the results obtained from performed experiments, as well as formulates conclusions and the directions of further development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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11 pages, 3592 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Laser Galvanometer Scanning System Accuracy Using Ball-Bar Standard

by Konrad Kobiela, Michał Jedynak, Wiktor Harmatys, Marcin Krawczyk and Jerzy A. Sładek

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 8929; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11198929 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

The laser projector based on the laser galvanometer scanning system enables the projection of CAD-based laser images onto geometrical objects. Furthermore, the system can perform a scan of components in order to control proper positioning (e.g., welded structures). We decided to conduct research aimed at determining the suitability of such systems for length measurements and assess their accuracy. These systems are commonly calibrated with the use of flat calibration boards, although their capability of projecting and scanning 3D objects. For this reason, a new method based on ISO 10360 has been proposed. Analysis of the system’s ability to perform length measurements, selection of a reference standard, and the tested device accuracy were the main objectives of the study. A ball-bar with a nominal length of 3000 mm was chosen as a reference standard. Positions of the reference element in the workspace were determined, and three series of five measured deviations were performed in each setting. The obtained values of measurement errors prove that it is possible to use ball-bar standards to assess the accuracy of the described systems, which is defined by the equation MPE(E0) = ±0.5 mm. The proposed method could be adapted to perform more complex analyzes in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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19 pages, 3320 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Development of a Coordinate Measuring Machine—Based Inspection Planning System for Industry 4.0

by Slavenko M. Stojadinovic, Vidosav D. Majstorovic, Adam Gąska, Jerzy Sładek and Numan M. Durakbasa

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8411; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188411 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3500

Abstract

Industry 4.0 represents a new paradigm which creates new requirements in the area of manufacturing and manufacturing metrology such as to reduce the cost of product, flexibility, mass customization, quality of product, high level of digitalization, optimization, etc., all of which contribute to smart manufacturing and smart metrology systems. This paper presents a developed inspection planning system based on CMM as support of the smart metrology within Industry 4.0 or manufacturing metrology 4.0 (MM4.0). The system is based on the application of three AI techniques such as engineering ontology (EO), GA and ants colony optimization (ACO). The developed system consists of: the ontological knowledge base; the mathematical model for generating strategy of initial MP; the model of analysis and optimization of workpiece setups and probe configuration; the path simulation model in MatLab, PTC Creo and STEP-NC Machine software, and the model of optimization MP by applying ACO. The advantage of the model is its suitability for monitoring of the measurement process and digitalization of the measurement process planning, simulation carried out and measurement verification based on CMM, reduction of the preparatory measurement time as early as in the inspection planning phase and minimizing human involvement or human errors through intelligent planning, which directly influences increased production efficiency, competitiveness, and productivity of enterprises. The measuring experiment was performed using a machined prismatic workpiece (PW). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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21 pages, 3571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can ISO GPS and ASME Tolerancing Systems Define the Same Functional Requirements?

by Zbigniew Humienny

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(17), 8269; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11178269 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 21555

Abstract

Geometrical tolerances are defined in the ISO Geometrical Product Specification system that is used worldwide, but on the other hand, the ASME Y14.5 standard is used in American companies to define how far actual parts may be away from their nominal geometry. This paper aimed to investigate whether specifications defining acceptable geometrical deviations in one system can be transformed to specifications in the other system. Twelve selected cases are discussed in the paper. Particularly, two cases of size tolerance, three cases of form tolerances, one case of orientation tolerance, four cases of position tolerance (including position tolerance with MMR for the pattern of five holes) and, finally, two cases of surface profile tolerance (unequally disposed tolerance zone and dynamic profile tolerance). The issue is not only in the several different symbols and a set of different defaults, but also in the different meanings and different application contexts of some symbols that have the same graphical form. The answer to the question raised in the paper title is yes for the majority of indications specified according to ASME Y14.5 when new tools from the 2017 edition of ISO 1101 are applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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19 pages, 12756 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Unified Theory for 3D Gear and Thread Metrology

by Martin Stein, Frank Keller and Anita Przyklenk

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7611; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167611 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2482

Abstract

We propose a unified theory for the metrological treatment of helical machine elements such as cylindrical and conical gears, worms, and screw threads. The main idea is to introduce a universal 3D geometry model for threaded components that provides for distinct parameterization using a unique set of geometry parameters and that offers and a functional description of the transverse profile. Using modern 3D coordinate measuring technology, a holistic evaluation algorithm yields the actual geometry as the result of a high dimensional best-fit procedure and form deviations as corresponding residuals. All determinants and evaluation parameters can then be calculated from the set of actual geometry parameters. By applying certain constraints to the model to be fitted, the novel method can be reduced to the established 2D methods and hence meets demands for the comparison of the two procedures. The results of the novel approach have proven to be very stable and they enable the evaluation of areal measurements with no loss of information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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17 pages, 10293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of a Stitching Operation in the Stitching Linear-Scan Method for Measurement of Cylinders in a Small Dimension

by Qiaolin Li, Yuki Shimizu, Toshiki Saito, Hiraku Matsukuma, Yindi Cai and Wei Gao

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4705; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104705 - 20 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2273

Abstract

Attempts are made in this paper to improve the quality of the stitching between adjacent arc-profiles in the stitching linear-scan method for the roundness measurement of a cylinder in a small dimension. The data in the edge region of an arc-profile, which could be influenced by the pressure angle of the measurement probe of a linear-scan stylus profiler, are eliminated in the stitching process to improve the quality of stitching. The effectiveness of the elimination of the edge region of an arc-profile is evaluated by employing the cross-correlation coefficient of two adjacent arc-profiles as an evaluation index. Furthermore, a modification is made to the experimental setup to reduce the misalignment of a workpiece along its axial direction with respect to the scanning probe. Experiments are carried out by using the modified setup to demonstrate the feasibility of the stitching linear-scan method for the roundness measurement of a small cylinder, which is difficult to measure by the conventional rotary-scan method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Trends in Manufacturing Metrology)

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