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Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants
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Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants

A special issue of Catalysts (ISSN 2073-4344). This special issue belongs to the section "Photocatalysis".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2021) | Viewed by 38337

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mohamed Ateia

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
Interests: photocatalysis; nanomaterials; polymers; adsorption; water treatment
Prof. Dr. Matthew Johnson

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
Interests: air cleaning; ventilation; indoor air quality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Bożena Czech

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Guest Editor
Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Pl. M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 5, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
Interests: catalysis; photocatalysis; AOPs; nanomaterials; ecotoxicology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Semiconducting metal oxide nanostructures play an important role in developing smart materials that are effective for sensing and destroying harmful chemical contaminants from our environment. Photocatalysis is widely used to degrade and mineralize hazardous organic compounds, reduce toxic metal ions to their non-toxic states, deactivate and destroy water borne microorganisms, decompose air pollutants including volatile organic compounds, NOx, CO and NH3, remove pathogens from air, and degrade waste plastics.
This Special Issue is a collection of original research papers, reviews, and commentaries that address the development and application of innovative photocatalytic systems for environmental remediation. Submissions are welcome in, but are not limited to, the following areas:

  • Development of novel semiconductors and/or composites for environmental remediation;
  • Photocatalytic degradation of emerging contaminants in wastewater;
  • Use of photocatalysis for indoor and urban air quality intervention;
  • Scale-up approaches for photocatalytic degradation systems;
  • Economic and life cycle assessment of for environmental remediation by photocatalysis.

Dr. Mohamed Ateia
Prof. Dr. Matthew Stanley Johnson
Dr. Bożena Czech
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Catalysts is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Photocatalysis
  • Composite materials
  • Wastewater treatment
  • Emerging water contaminants
  • Indoor air quality
  • Urban air quality
  • Life cycle analysis

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 141 KiB  
Editorial
Innovative and Practical Trends in the Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants
by Mohamed Ateia, Matthew S. Johnson and Bożena Czech
Catalysts 2024, 14(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14020125 - 5 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1634
Abstract
This Catalysts Special Issue explores cutting-edge research in the field of photocatalysis, offering a glimpse into the evolving landscape of environmental science and catalysis [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

22 pages, 4870 KiB  
Article
Preparation, Property Characterization of Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 Heterojunction Photocatalyst for Photocatalytic Degradation of Benzotriazole under Visible Light Irradiation
by Ye Yao and Jingfei Luan
Catalysts 2022, 12(2), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12020159 - 27 Jan 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2867
Abstract
The Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction photocatalyst was synthesized for the first time by the facile in situ precipitation method. The structural properties of a Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction photocatalyst were characterized by X-ray diffractometer, scanning electron microscope-X [...] Read more.
The Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction photocatalyst was synthesized for the first time by the facile in situ precipitation method. The structural properties of a Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction photocatalyst were characterized by X-ray diffractometer, scanning electron microscope-X ray energy dispersive spectra, X-ray photoelectron spectrograph and UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectrophotometer. The band gap energy (BGE) of Gd2YSbO7 or ZnBiNbO5 was found to be 2.396 eV or 2.696 eV, respectively. The photocatalytic property of Gd2YSbO7 or ZnBiNbO5 or Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction photocatalyst (GZHP) was reported. After a visible-light irradiation of 145 minutes (VLI-145 min), the removal rate (RER) of benzotriazole reached 99.05%, 82.45%, 78.23% or 47.30% with Gd2YSbO7/ZnBiNbO5 heterojunction (GZH), Gd2YSbO7, ZnBiNbO5 or N-doped TiO2 (NTO) as photocatalyst. In addition, the kinetic constant k, derived from the dynamic curve toward benzotriazole concentration and visible light irradiation time with GZH as a photocatalyst, reached 0.0213 min−1. Compared with Gd2YSbO7 or ZnBiNbO5 or NTO, GZHP showed maximal photocatalytic activity (PHA) for the photocatalytic degradation of benzotriazole under visible-light irradiation. The RER of total organic carbon during the photocatalytic degradation of benzotriazole reached 90.18%, 74.35%, 70.73% or 42.15% with GZH as a photocatalyst or with Gd2YSbO7, ZnBiNbO5 or NTO as a photocatalyst after VLI-145 min. Moreover, the kinetic constant k, which came from the dynamic curve toward total organic carbon concentration and visible light irradiation time with GZH as a photocatalyst, reached 0.0110 min−1. Based on above results, GZHP showed the maximal mineralization percentage ratio when GZHP degraded benzotriazole. The results showed that hydroxyl radicals was the main oxidation radical during the degradation of benzotriazole. The photocatalytic degradation of benzotriazole with GZH as a photocatalyst conformed to the first-order reaction kinetics. Our research aimed to improve the photocatalytic properties of the single photocatalyst. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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31 pages, 8689 KiB  
Article
Synthesis, Property Characterization and Photocatalytic Activity of the Ag3PO4/Gd2BiTaO7 Heterojunction Catalyst under Visible Light Irradiation
by Jingfei Luan, Zhijie Wei, Bowen Niu, Guangmin Yang, Cisheng Huang, Bingbing Ma and Wenlu Liu
Catalysts 2022, 12(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12010022 - 25 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3169
Abstract
A new type of Gd2BiTaO7 nanocatalyst (GBT) was synthesized by a high-temperature solid-phase method, and a heterojunction photocatalyst, which was composed of GBT and silver phosphate (AP), was prepared by the facile in-situ precipitation method for the first time. The [...] Read more.
A new type of Gd2BiTaO7 nanocatalyst (GBT) was synthesized by a high-temperature solid-phase method, and a heterojunction photocatalyst, which was composed of GBT and silver phosphate (AP), was prepared by the facile in-situ precipitation method for the first time. The photocatalytic property of GBT or the Ag3PO4/Gd2BiTaO7 heterojunction photocatalyst (AGHP) was reported. The structural properties of GBT and AGHP were characterized by an X-ray diffractometer, scanning electron microscope–X-ray energy dispersive spectra, an X-ray photoelectron spectrograph, a synchrotron-based ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscope, a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, an UV-Vis diffuse reflectance spectrophotometer and an electron paramagnetic resonance spectrometer. The results displayed that GBT was well crystallized with a stable cubic crystal system and space group Fd3m. The lattice parameter or band gap energy of GBT was found to be a = 10.740051 Å or 2.35 eV, respectively. After visible light irradiation of 30 min, the removal rate of bisphenol A (BPA) reached 99.52%, 95.53% or 37.00% with AGHP as the photocatalyst, with Ag3PO4 and potassium persulfate (AP-PS) as photocatalysts or with N-doped TiO2 (NT) as a photocatalyst, respectively. According to the experimental data, it could be found that the removal rate of BPA with AGHP as a photocatalyst was 2.69 times higher than that with NT as a photocatalyst. AGHP showed higher photocatalytic activity for photocatalytic degradation of BPA under visible light irradiation compared with GBT or AP-PS or NT. The removal rate of total organic carbon (TOC) was 96.21%, 88.10% or 30.55% with AGHP as a photocatalyst, with AP-PS as photocatalysts or with NT as a photocatalyst after visible light irradiation of 30 min. The above results indicated that AGHP possessed the maximal mineralization percentage ratio during the process of degrading BPA compared with GBT or AP-PS or NT. The results indicated that the main oxidation radical was •OH during the process of degrading BPA. The photocatalytic degradation of BPA with AGHP as a photocatalyst conformed to the first-order reaction kinetics. This study provided inspiration for obtaining visible light-responsive heterojunction photocatalysts with high catalytic activity and efficient removal technologies for organic pollutants and toxic pollutants, and as a result, the potential practical applications of visible light-responsive heterojunction photocatalysts were widened. The subsequent research of thin-film plating of the heterojunction catalysts and the construction of complete photoluminescent thin-film catalytic reaction systems, which utilized visible light irradiation, could provide new technologies and perspectives for the pharmaceutical wastewater treatment industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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16 pages, 19211 KiB  
Article
Biochar Nanoparticles over TiO2 Nanotube Arrays: A Green Co-Catalyst to Boost the Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants
by Marco Pinna, Gilberto Binda, Marco Altomare, Marcello Marelli, Carlo Dossi, Damiano Monticelli, Davide Spanu and Sandro Recchia
Catalysts 2021, 11(9), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11091048 - 29 Aug 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4662
Abstract
Biochar nanoparticles (BC NPs), produced by low temperature pyrolysis (350 °C) of microalgae (Nannochloropsis sp.) and nutshells, are proposed as low-cost and sustainable co-catalysts to promote the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanotube (NT) arrays towards the degradation of methylene blue (MB) [...] Read more.
Biochar nanoparticles (BC NPs), produced by low temperature pyrolysis (350 °C) of microalgae (Nannochloropsis sp.) and nutshells, are proposed as low-cost and sustainable co-catalysts to promote the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanotube (NT) arrays towards the degradation of methylene blue (MB) used as an organic pollutant model molecule. BC NPs (size < 25 nm) were obtained by treating bulk BC (i.e., biomass after pyrolysis) by sonication–centrifugation cycles in a water solution. The filtered BC NPs dispersion was deposited by simple drop-casting on the TiO2 NT support. The BC loading was varied by performing multiple depositions. Photocatalytic experiments under UV light (365 nm) revealed that the decoration with BC NPs significantly improves the TiO2 photoactivity. Such enhancement is mainly influenced by the amount of BC deposited; upon optimizing the BC deposition conditions, the rate of photocatalytic degradation of MB increases approximately three times with respect to bare TiO2, almost irrespective of the nature of the raw material. The greater photocatalytic activity of BC-TiO2 can be attributed to the synergistic combination of reactant/product adsorption and catalytic degradation of the adsorbed organic pollutant, as well as an improved charge carrier separation and electron transfer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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15 pages, 6617 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Hydrogen Production from Starch Aqueous Suspensions over a Cd0.7Zn0.3S-Based Photocatalyst
by Anna Y. Kurenkova, Tatiana B. Medvedeva, Nikolay V. Gromov, Andrey V. Bukhtiyarov, Evgeny Y. Gerasimov, Svetlana V. Cherepanova and Ekaterina A. Kozlova
Catalysts 2021, 11(7), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11070870 - 20 Jul 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2973
Abstract
We explored the photoreforming of rice and corn starch with simultaneous hydrogen production over a Cd0.7Zn0.3S-based photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. The photocatalyst was characterized by UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The influence of [...] Read more.
We explored the photoreforming of rice and corn starch with simultaneous hydrogen production over a Cd0.7Zn0.3S-based photocatalyst under visible light irradiation. The photocatalyst was characterized by UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The influence of starch pretreatment conditions, such as hydrolysis temperature and alkaline concentration, on the reaction rate was studied. The maximum rate of H2 evolution was 730 μmol·h−1·g−1, with AQE = 1.8% at 450 nm, in the solution obtained after starch hydrolysis in 5 M NaOH at 70 °C. The composition of the aqueous phase of the suspension before and after the photocatalytic reaction was studied via high-performance liquid chromatography, and such products as glucose and sodium gluconate, acetate, formate, glycolate, and lactate were found after the photocatalytic reaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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14 pages, 1483 KiB  
Article
Do Gas Nanobubbles Enhance Aqueous Photocatalysis? Experiment and Analysis of Mechanism
by Weijia Yu, Jiaying Chen, Mohamed Ateia, Ezra L. Cates and Matthew S. Johnson
Catalysts 2021, 11(4), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11040511 - 19 Apr 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3997
Abstract
The performance of photocatalytic advanced oxidation must be improved in order for the technology to make the jump from academic research to widespread use. Research is needed on the factors that cause photocatalysis to become self-limiting. In this study, we introduced, for the [...] Read more.
The performance of photocatalytic advanced oxidation must be improved in order for the technology to make the jump from academic research to widespread use. Research is needed on the factors that cause photocatalysis to become self-limiting. In this study, we introduced, for the first time, nanobubbles continuously into a running photocatalytic reactor. Synthetic air, O2, and N2 bubbles in the size range of 40 to 700 nm were added to a reaction system comprising P25 TiO2 photocatalyst in stirred aqueous solution excited by UV-A lamps, with methyl orange as a target contaminant. The removal of methyl orange was tested under conditions of changing pH and with the addition of different radical scavengers. Results indicated that the oxygen and air nanobubbles improved the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange—the removal efficiency of methyl orange increased from 58.2 ± 3.5% (N2 aeration) to 71.9 ± 0.6% (O2 aeration). Dissolved oxygen (DO) of 14.93 ± 0.13 mg/L was achieved using O2 nanobubbles in comparison to 8.43 ± 0.34 mg/L without aeration. The photodegradation of methyl orange decreased from 70.8 ± 0.4% to 53.9 ± 0.5% as pH increased from 2 to 10. Experiments using the scavengers showed that O2− was the main reactive species in photocatalytic degradation under highly dissolved oxygen conditions, which also accounted for the observation that the removal efficiency for methyl orange decreased at higher pH. However, without photocatalyst, nanobubbles alone did not improve the removal of methyl orange, and nanobubbles also did not increase the degradation of methyl orange by only photolysis. These experiments show that oxygen and air nanobubbles can act as environmentally friendly catalysts for boosting the performance of photocatalytic water treatment systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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12 pages, 4278 KiB  
Article
Gold Nanoparticle-Decorated Bi2S3 Nanorods and Nanoflowers for Photocatalytic Wastewater Treatment
by Njemuwa Nwaji, Eser Metin Akinoglu and Michael Giersig
Catalysts 2021, 11(3), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11030355 - 9 Mar 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3657
Abstract
Colloidal synthesis of photocatalysts with potential to overcome the drawback of low photocatalytic efficiency brought by charge recombination and narrow photo-response has been a challenge. Herein, a general and facile colloidal approach to synthesize orthorhombic phase Bi2S3 particles with rod [...] Read more.
Colloidal synthesis of photocatalysts with potential to overcome the drawback of low photocatalytic efficiency brought by charge recombination and narrow photo-response has been a challenge. Herein, a general and facile colloidal approach to synthesize orthorhombic phase Bi2S3 particles with rod and flower-like morphology is reported. We elucidate the formation and growth process mechanisms of these synthesized nanocrystals in detail and cooperate these Bi2S3 particles with metallic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to construct heterostructured photocatalysts. The unique properties of AuNPs featuring tunable surface plasmon resonance and large field enhancement are used to sensitize the photocatalytic activity of the Bi2S3 semiconductor particles. The morphology, structure, elemental composition, and light absorption ability of the prepared catalysts are characterized by (high-resolution) transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and UV–vis absorption spectroscopy. The catalysts exhibit high and stable photocatalytic activity for the degradation of organic pollutants demonstrated using rhodamine B and methyl orange dyes under solar light irradiation. We show that the incorporation of the AuNPs with the Bi2S3 particles increases the photocatalytic activity 1.2 to 3-fold. Radical trapping analysis indicates that the production of hydroxyl and superoxide radicals are the dominant active species responsible for the photodegradation activity. The photocatalysts exhibit good stability and recyclability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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16 pages, 1340 KiB  
Article
Novel Materials for Combined Nitrogen Dioxide and Formaldehyde Pollution Control under Ambient Conditions
by Hugo S. Russell, James Bonomaully, Rossana Bossi, Magdalena E. G. Hofmann, Hasse C. Knap, Jakob B. Pernov, Marten in ‘t Veld and Matthew S. Johnson
Catalysts 2020, 10(9), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10091040 - 10 Sep 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3620
Abstract
Formaldehyde (HCHO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) often co-exist in urban environments at levels that are hazardous to health. There is a demand for a solution to the problem of their combined removal. In this paper, we investigate catalysts, adsorbents and composites [...] Read more.
Formaldehyde (HCHO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) often co-exist in urban environments at levels that are hazardous to health. There is a demand for a solution to the problem of their combined removal. In this paper, we investigate catalysts, adsorbents and composites for their removal efficiency (RE) toward HCHO and NO2, in the context of creating a pollution control device (PCD). Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry and cavity ring-down spectrometry are used to measure HCHO, and chemiluminescence and absorbance-based monitors for NO2. Commercially available and lab-synthesized materials are tested under relevant conditions. None of the commercial adsorbents are effective for HCHO removal, whereas two metal oxide-based catalysts are highly effective, with REs of 81 ± 4% and 82 ± 1%, an improvement on previous materials tested under similar conditions. The best performing material for combined removal is a novel composite consisting of a noble metal catalyst supported on a metal oxide, combined with a treated active carbon adsorbent. The composite is theorized to work synergistically to physisorb and oxidize HCHO and chemisorb NO2. It has an HCHO RE of 72 ± 2% and an NO2 RE of 96 ± 2%. This material has potential as the active component in PCDs used to reduce personal pollution exposure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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16 pages, 7815 KiB  
Article
Photocatalytic Nanofiltration Membrane Using Zr-MOF/GO Nanocomposite with High-Flux and Anti-Fouling Properties
by Rina Heu, Mohamed Ateia and Chihiro Yoshimura
Catalysts 2020, 10(6), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal10060711 - 25 Jun 2020
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4581
Abstract
Photocatalytic nanofiltration (NF) membranes with enhanced flux and anti-fouling properties were prepared from a layered in situ nanocomposite of metal organic framework (i.e., UiO-66) and graphene oxide (UiO-66_GO) on a polyamide NF membrane using a pressure-assisted self-assembly method. For filtering pure water and [...] Read more.
Photocatalytic nanofiltration (NF) membranes with enhanced flux and anti-fouling properties were prepared from a layered in situ nanocomposite of metal organic framework (i.e., UiO-66) and graphene oxide (UiO-66_GO) on a polyamide NF membrane using a pressure-assisted self-assembly method. For filtering pure water and humic acid, the composite membrane with a 10% UiO-66_GO loading (UiO-66_GO/NF-10%) showed a higher water flux (up to 63 kg/m2 h bar), flux recovery (80%), and total fouling resistance (33%) than the pristine NF membrane. Physical and chemical characterization revealed that this performance was attributed to improvements in hydrophilicity, porosity, surface smoothness, and charge repulsion. The UiO-66_GO/NF-10% composite membrane exhibited better physical stability with a relatively low mass loss (8.64%) after five washes than the membranes with mass loadings of 5 and 15 wt%. Furthermore, the UiO-66_GO/NF-10% composite membrane exhibited considerable photocatalytic activity under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation (bandgap: 3.45 eV), which reduced irreversible fouling from 20.7% to 2.4% and increased flux recovery to 98%. This study demonstrated that surface modification with the UiO-66_GO nanocomposite produced a high-flux anti-fouling photocatalytic NF membrane, which is promising for water purification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

45 pages, 721 KiB  
Review
A Review of Photocatalytic Materials for Urban NOx Remediation
by Hugo Savill Russell, Louise Bøge Frederickson, Ole Hertel, Thomas Ellermann and Steen Solvang Jensen
Catalysts 2021, 11(6), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal11060675 - 25 May 2021
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5336
Abstract
NOx is a pervasive pollutant in urban environments. This review assesses the current state of the art of photocatalytic oxidation materials, designed for the abatement of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the urban environment, and typically, but not exclusively based on titanium dioxide (TiO [...] Read more.
NOx is a pervasive pollutant in urban environments. This review assesses the current state of the art of photocatalytic oxidation materials, designed for the abatement of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the urban environment, and typically, but not exclusively based on titanium dioxide (TiO2). Field trials with existing commercial materials, such as paints, asphalt and concrete, in a range of environments including street canyons, car parks, tunnels, highways and open streets, are considered in-depth. Lab studies containing the most recent developments in the photocatalytic materials are also summarised, as well as studies investigating the impact of physical parameters on their efficiency. It is concluded that this technology may be useful as a part of the measures used to lower urban air pollution levels, yielding ∼2% NOx removal in the immediate area around the surface, for optimised TiO2, in some cases, but is not capable of the reported high NOx removal efficiencies >20% in outdoor urban environments, and can in some cases lower air quality by releasing hazardous by-products. However, research into new material is ongoing. The reason for the mixed results in the studies reviewed, and massive range of removal efficiencies reported (from negligible and up to >80%) is mainly the large range of testing practices used. Before deployment in individual environments site-specific testing should be performed, and new standards for lab and field testing should be developed. The longevity of the materials and their potential for producing hazardous by-products should also be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative and Practical Trends in Photocatalytic Degradation of Environmental Pollutants)
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