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Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining

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A special issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352). This special issue belongs to the section "Crystalline Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2023) | Viewed by 23697

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Dr. Ireneusz Zagórski

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Department of Production Engeneering, Lublin University of Technology, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
Interests: magnesium alloys; milling; machinability indicators; machining
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Dr. Mirosław Szala

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Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
Interests: cavitation erosion; abrasion; tribology; failure analysis; additive manufacturing; thermal spraying; thin films; shot peening; ion implantation; hardfacing; welding; cobalt alloys; nickel alloys; cermets; metal matrix composites; stainless and structural steels; fatigue; mechanical properties; microstructure
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Prof. Dr. Pavel Lukáč

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Department of Physics of Materials, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 3, 121 16 Praha 2, Czech Republic
Interests: metallic materials; single crystals; polycrystals; submicrocrystalline materials; nanocrystals; composites; grains; grain boundary; crystal defects; deformation behavior; solid solution hardening; precipitation strengthening; high temperature plasticity; creep; hardening/softening; thermally activated flow; dislocations; climb of dislocations; twins; superplasticity; properties; mechanical properties; thermal conductivity; electrical conductivity; thermal expansion; damping; microstructure; severe plastic deformation; accumulative roll bonding; equal-channel angular pressing; high-pressure torsion
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Magnesium alloys are an interesting material for construction and design. They have many interesting and specific characteristics. Some of these characteristics—for example, good electromagnetic shielding—could be interesting for the telecommunications industry, space industry, etc.

Currently, magnesium alloy elements, characterized by their insignificant weight and considerable strength, find increasingly wider applications in the industry. Their excellent electromagnetic shielding, advantageous casting properties (in the case of cast alloys), the ability for vibration damping, and recyclability, as well as accessibility (ore mining, sea water), are considered advantageous.

Most produced machine components and device parts are subjected to cutting, machining, and milling operations. Therefore, it seems justified to investigate such machinability indicators that would allow for estimation of machining processes in terms of their effectiveness and safety.

Starting from the 1970s, attempts have focused on defining the recommended machinability parameters for light alloys, including magnesium alloys. The problems occurring in the milling of magnesium alloys can be classified depending on the type of machining (i.e., dry machining or wet machining with the application of emulsion or oil). In dry machining, the critical machinability indicator is the temperature in the cutting zone. However, magnesium alloys have been proven to be suitable for both HSC (high-speed cutting) and HPC (high-performance cutting). The machining of magnesium alloys can be up to four times faster than that of popular aluminum alloys. Magnesium alloys can be dry machined because of a longer tool life—in the case of magnesium alloys, the tool life is ten times longer than that of tools used in the machining of aluminum alloys.

For the above reasons, it seems advisable to collect the most important information about “Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining”.

Dr. Ireneusz Zagórski
Dr. Mirosław Szala
Prof. Dr. Pavel Lukáč
Guest Editors

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Keywords

magnesium alloys
machining
milling
machinability indicators
coatings
microstructure

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 3133 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion and Wear-Resistant Composite Zirconium Nitride Layers Produced on the AZ91D Magnesium Alloy in Hybrid Process Using Hydrothermal Treatment

by Michał Tacikowski, Piotr Karpiniak, Szymon Marciniak, Jacek Słoma, Jerzy Smolik and Rafał Jakieła

Crystals 2023, 13(10), 1455; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13101455 - 30 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1085

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the possibility of an effective improvement in performance properties, including corrosion and wear resistance of magnesium AZ91D alloy using a surface engineering solution based on zirconium nitride composite surface layers produced on AZ91D alloy in a hybrid process using hydrothermal final sealing. Research results show that the formation of a composite ZrN-Zr-Al-type zirconium nitride layer on zirconium and aluminum sublayers results in a significant increase in resistance to corrosion and wear. The decrease in chemical activity of the sealed zirconium nitride composite layer on AZ91D, expressed by the displacement of the corrosion potential in the potentiodynamic test, reaches an outstanding value of ΔE_corr = 865 mV. The results of the SIMS chemical composition analysis of the layers indicate that the sealing of the composite layer occurs at the level of the aluminum sublayer. The composite layer reduces wear in the Amsler roll on block test by more than an order of magnitude. The possibility of effective sealing of zirconium nitride layers on the AZ91D alloy demonstrated in this study, radically increases the corrosion resistance and combined with the simultaneous mechanical durability of the layers, is of key importance from the point of view of new perspectives for application in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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14 pages, 10911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Corrosion Behavior of WE43 and AZ80 Alloys in NaCl and Na₂SO₄ Solutions

by Chenxu Li, Yuming Zhao, Jinhui Liu, Jilei Xu, Dong Guo, Huanghua Zhang, Xianghong Zhou, Peixu Yang and Shaojun Zhang

Crystals 2023, 13(3), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030506 - 15 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1728

Abstract

The corrosion behavior and corrosion resistance of WE43 and AZ80 immersed in NaCl and Na₂SO₄ solutions were investigated, respectively. Two alloys were immersed in 0.6 M NaCl and Na₂SO₄ solution to observe the corrosion morphologies. Hydrogen evolution and weight loss experiments were conducted to obtain the corrosion rates. Electrochemical tests were used to characterized detailed corrosion situation. The results show that, when immersed in Na₂SO₄ solution, WE43 alloy shows a unique micro-galvanic corrosion behavior. On the other hand, the corrosion rate of WE43 in Na₂SO₄ solution is much faster than that in NaCl solution, which is the direct opposite of AZ80 and most magnesium alloys. The protection of the surface film maybe the key factor to the unexpected phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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15 pages, 15092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantum Behaviour of Mg and Mg-Al-Zn Microstructure

by Sahriah Basri, Mohd Ezhar Zulkifli, Nurul Shahzira Hazri and Siti Kartom Kamarudin

Crystals 2023, 13(3), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030501 - 14 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1819

Abstract

Magnesium is an essential element because of its many beneficial properties and advantages over other metals, including its lack of risk to people’s health and its reasonable cost. However, Mg has several disadvantages, one of which is its high corrosion rate. This work analysed magnesium alloy characteristics and quantum behaviour, including band structure, molecular orbital, and corrosion behaviour in the presence of water. Magnesium was characterised by density functional theory software using CASTEP and Dmol3. Results showed no Mg band structure displays a conductive Fermi level of 8.85 eV. Curvature studies revealed that Mg has strong curvature and electron mobility. The density of state (DOS) of Mg-Al-Zn changes with Al and Zn alloy atoms, and the electron density increases to −7.5 eV compared with pure Mg. HOMO–LUMO analysis elucidated that Mg-Al-Zn* has a large gap (0.419 eV), leading to its stability and low chemical reactivity. This study analysed the properties of Mg and then examines the effect of corrosion on Mg alloys using DFT at different element positions. Corrosion analysis indicated that Mg-Al-Zn has the highest activation energy, implying that its corrosion is less likely than that of other alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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11 pages, 5736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Longitudinal Magnetic Field on the Microstructure and Properties of A-TIG Welding with Different TiO₂ Coating Amounts

by Xintong Liu, Yunhai Su, Guiqing Zhang, Ruiqi Wang and Xianglin Cai

Crystals 2023, 13(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13010066 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1610

Abstract

In order to improve the poor weldability and low quality of welded joints during the welding of magnesium alloys, a longitudinal magnetic field is introduced in the welding process of A-TIG welding with a fixed magnetic field frequency (30 Hz) and magnetic field current (1.5 A). Experimental analysis is performed on the effect of the magnetic field on the microstructure and mechanical properties of welded joints under different TiO₂ active agent coating amounts. The results show that the grain size tends to decrease and then increase with the increase in the active agent coating under the magnetic field. This is mainly because the active agent changes the arc morphology, which in turn affects the melt pool motion. The Lorentz force generated by the longitudinal magnetic field acts on the molten pool and will have an agitating effect on the pool. Both the magnetic field and the active agent are convective to the melt pool, and when the magnetic field and the active agent act together will further enhance the convective effect. However, when the active agent is too thick, it will affect the fluidity of the molten pool during welding and reduce the quality of the welded joint. Under the action of magnetic field, when the active agent coating amount is 3 mg/cm², the grain size is the finest and the mechanical properties are the best. At this time, the tensile strength was 292 MPa, elongation was 11.2%, and hardness was 78.9 HV in the weld zone and 77.8 HV in the heat-affected zone. Further analysis of the melt pool change and grain refinement mechanism under the combined effect of the magnetic field and active agent revealed that the magnetic field promotes the solidification of the second phase in the weld tissue, but the effect on the heat-affected zone is not obvious. The addition of the magnetic field was found to refine the grains by EBSD testing, reducing the average grain size by 1.43 μm. This indicates that the introduction of the magnetic field in the A-TIG welding process improves the mechanical properties and microstructure of the welded joint, which is conducive to solving the problem of poor weldability in the welding process of magnesium alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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17 pages, 4918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evolution during Mechanical Alloying of a Biodegradable Magnesium Alloy

by Doina Raducanu, Vasile Danut Cojocaru, Anna Nocivin, Radu Emil Hendea, Steliana Ivanescu, Doina Stanciu, Corneliu Trisca-Rusu, Nicolae Serban, Silviu Iulian Drob and Radu Septimiu Campian

Crystals 2022, 12(11), 1641; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12111641 - 15 Nov 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

The aim of the present work was to apply a mechanical alloying method to obtain a Mg-10Zn-0.5Zr-0.8Ca powder-alloy with morphological and dimensional characteristics, proper for subsequent selective laser melting (SLM) processing. The mechanical alloying process was applied at different values of the milling time. Thus, the evolution of the main morphological and dimensional characteristics of the experimented powder-alloy could be studied. The conclusion of this study is that mechanical alloying possesses good potential to obtain powder-alloy with almost rounded morphology and fine dimensions, proper for further additive manufacturing procedures such as selective laser melting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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27 pages, 5402 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Melt-Pool Dynamics and Microstructure of Mg Alloy WE43 under Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Conditions

by Julie Soderlind, Aiden A. Martin, Nicholas P. Calta, Philip J. DePond, Jenny Wang, Bey Vrancken, Robin E. Schäublin, Indranil Basu, Vivek Thampy, Anthony Y. Fong, Andrew M. Kiss, Joel M. Berry, Aurélien Perron, Johanna Nelson Weker, Kevin H. Stone, Christopher J. Tassone, Michael F. Toney, Anthony Van Buuren, Jörg F. Löffler, Subhash H. Risbud and Manyalibo J. Matthews Show full author list Hide full author list

Crystals 2022, 12(10), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12101437 - 12 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

Magnesium-based alloy WE43 is a state-of-the-art bioresorbable metallic implant material. There is a need for implants with both complex geometries to match the mechanical properties of bone and refined microstructure for controlled resorption. Additive manufacturing (AM) using laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) presents a viable fabrication method for implant applications, as it offers near-net-shape geometrical control, allows for geometry customization based on an individual patient, and fast cooling rates to achieve a refined microstructure. In this study, the laser–alloy interaction is investigated over a range of LPBF-relevant processing conditions to reveal melt-pool dynamics, pore formation, and the microstructure of laser-melted WE43. In situ X-ray imaging reveals distinct laser-induced vapor depression morphology regimes, with minimal pore formation at laser-scan speeds greater than 500 mm/s. Optical and electron microscopy of cross-sectioned laser tracks reveal three distinct microstructural regimes that can be controlled by adjusting laser-scan parameters: columnar, dendritic, and banded microstructures. These regimes are consistent with those predicted by the analytic solidification theory for conduction-mode welding, but not for keyhole-mode tracks. The results provide insight into the fundamental laser–material interactions of the WE43 alloy under AM-processing conditions and are critical for the successful implementation of LPBF-produced WE43 parts in biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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16 pages, 7809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evolution of AZ91 Magnesium Alloy Welded Joint under Magnetic Field and NiCl₂ Activated Flux

by Guiqing Zhang, Yinglei Ren and Yunhai Su

Crystals 2022, 12(10), 1389; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12101389 - 29 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1735

Abstract

As the lightest engineering materials, magnesium alloys have been widely used. Because of the specific chemical and physical characteristics, the weldability of magnesium alloy is poor. Adopting suitable welding technology and improving the quality of magnesium alloy welded joints is key to their successful application. According to previous research data, it was found that the combined action of magnetic field and activated flux has a positive effect on improving-welding efficiency and improving the properties of a welded joint, butanalysis of microstructure evolution is insufficient. In this paper, AZ91 magnesium alloy was welded by TIG welding with activated flux and external longitudinal AC magnetic field. The phase composition and microstructure evolution were investigated. The experimental results revealed that the phase composition of welded joint was not changed due to the introduction of the magnetic field and activated flux, the growth patterns of grain in the weld seam and heat-affected zone were different. When the activated flux amount was 3 mg/cm² with the effect of the magnetic field, the grain size of the weld seam was the finest, which was 18.96 μm. However, the grain size of the weld seam was larger than that of base metal. The crystallographic characteristics of grain boundaries in the weld seam and base metal were both LAGBs. The microstructure of the weld seam was messier than the base metal due to the larger misorientation angle. Under the combined action of the magnetic field and activated flux, the crystallization nucleation condition of the molten pool was changed, the formation of twins was promoted, and the crystal could selectively grow parallel with the (0001) basal plane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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15 pages, 3401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Statistical Modeling of the Machinability of an In-Situ Synthesized RZ5/TiB₂ Magnesium Matrix Composite in Dry Turning Condition

by Arabinda Meher, Manas Mohan Mahapatra, Priyaranjan Samal, Pandu Ranga Vundavilli and Karthik Venkitraman Shankar

Crystals 2022, 12(10), 1353; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12101353 - 25 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1957

Abstract

Machinability analyses of metal matrix composites are essential for manufacturing industries. The current study is focused on the mathematical modeling of the machinability of an in-situ synthesized RZ5-8 wt.% TiB₂ composite using the Taguchi design statistical tools and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Taguchi’s method indicates that the feed rate is the most influential parameter, followed by the depth of cut and cutting speed in determining the cutting force and surface roughness during the machining of the RZ5/8 wt.% TiB₂ composite. A regression analysis of the experimental data was carried out using ANOVA, and regression equations were established to estimate cutting force and surface roughness under different parametric conditions. The regression model was validated for other test conditions and the maximum deviation observed was ±10%. Main effects plots and response surface plots were developed to analyze the machining parameters’ individual and combined effects on the RZ5/8 wt.% TiB₂ composite’s machinability. The chip morphology and tool wear of the RZ5/8 wt.% TiB₂ composite were analyzed using FESEM under different machining conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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13 pages, 6450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphology Modification of Mg₂Si by Solution Treatment and Its Effects on the Mechanical Properties of TiB₂/Mg-4Al-1.5Si Composites

by Jian Liu, Xiaogang Chen, Wuxiao Wang, Shaoyong Qin and Haoran Xu

Crystals 2022, 12(9), 1260; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12091260 - 5 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1787

Abstract

TiB₂/Mg-4Al-1.5Si magnesium matrix composites were prepared by semi-solid stirring assisted ultrasonic treatment, the primary Mg₂Si phases in the composites exhibit polygon with sharp corners, and the eutectic Mg₂Si phases appear thin Chinese-script or short-strip shape. To reduce stress concentration around the sharp corners (tips) of the Mg₂Si phases, the morphology of the Mg₂Si phases was further modified by solution treatment at 420 °C for 24 h, and the effects of the morphology modification of the Mg₂Si phases on the mechanical properties of the composites were investigated. The results showed that after the solution treatment, the sharp corners of the primary Mg₂Si phases were blunted, and the partial branches of the eutectic Mg₂Si phases were dissolved into particles. The Vickers-hardness, ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation of the composites were increased by 11.50%, 33.28%, 28.57%, and 27.17% compared with those of unmodified composites, respectively. The solution treatment exhibits a more significant strengthening effect for the composites in hardness, ultimate tensile strength, and yield strength compared with the matrix alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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13 pages, 6474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Microstructure and Properties of AZ91 Magnesium Alloy Welded Joint with Magnetic Field and TiO₂ Activated Flux

by Guiqing Zhang, Xintong Liu and Yunhai Su

Crystals 2022, 12(8), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12081135 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1550

Abstract

In order to improve the weldability and bearing capacity of AZ91 magnesium alloy welded joints, magnetic field and active flux were added in the TIG welding process. In the welding process, the magnetic field and welding parameters were unchanged, and the coating amount of active flux was adjusted. The formability, mechanical properties, and microstructure of the welded joints under different coating amounts of activated flux were analyzed, and the crystallization nucleation characteristics of molten pool were discussed. The experimental results reveal that the combined effect of the magnetic field and activated flux has a significant effect on increasing the penetration and promoting mechanical properties. When the coating amount of activated flux is 3 mg/cm², the highest penetration of the welded joint is obtained, which is 141% of that without activated flux. Meanwhile, the mechanical properties reach the maximum, which is a tensile strength of 292 MPa, elongation of 11.2%, and weld zone hardness of 75.6 HV (0.5 Kgf). The combined effect of TiO₂ flux and magnetic field does not change the phase composition and the grain orientation of a weld metal but can affect the grain size. The average grain size of a weld metal under an activated flux coating amount of 3 mg/cm² is 18.2% smaller than that under an activated flux coating amount of 1 mg/cm². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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Review

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37 pages, 8430 KiB

Open AccessReview

Simulation of Microstructure Evolution in Mg Alloys by Phase-Field Methods: A Review

by Yongbiao Wang, Yang Zhang, Xintian Liu, Jiaxin Wang, Xinyuan Xie, Junjie Jiang, Jianxiu Liu, Hong Liu, Yujuan Wu, Shuai Dong and Liming Peng

Crystals 2022, 12(9), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12091305 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3657

Abstract

Microstructure is one of the vital factors that determine the mechanical properties of magnesium (Mg) alloys. However, traditional microstructure characterization methods hardly satisfy the needs of tracking the morphological evolution of Mg alloys. With the rapid development of computer simulation, using the phase-field method to simulate the evolution of microstructures in Mg alloys has become the new norm. This article provides a review of the applications of the phase-field method in Mg alloys. First, classic phase-field models and the derived multi-phase and polycrystalline phase-field models are reviewed, then a review of the twin and solid-state phase transition phase-field models was undertaken, and the research progress of phase-field simulation in the solidification, recrystallization, and solid-state phase transformation of Mg alloys, were gradually introduced. In addition, unresolved problems of phase-field simulation were summarized, and the possible direction of future studies on phase-field simulation in Mg alloys field were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Magnesium Alloys: Microstructure, Coating, and Machining)

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