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Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "J: Thermal Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 22 January 2025 | Viewed by 48457

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Mingshan Wei

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Guest Editor

School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: thermal management of new energy vehicles; integrated electric–thermal energy system

Dr. Dan Dan

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: electric vehicle; power battery; thermal management; heat pipe
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The large-scale application of energy-saving and new energy vehicles (electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles, etc) has become vital in the transportation field. However, these new modes of vehicles still have some technical flaws, such as safety risks and range anxiety. During freezing winters and hot summers, these problems are greatly aggravated by the energy versus temperature characteristics of batteries and the turning on of air conditioning (AC). Therefore, an efficient thermal management system (TMS) is greatly needed for advanced energy-saving and new energy vehicles to maintain adequate operating range, protect components from aging and ensure passenger comfort. Innovations in thermal management technology are thus critical from a physical point of view. The novel architectures of TMS, new cooling/heating structures of battery systems, and the key technologies of air-conditioning and thermal system control are vitally important for the future development of energy-saving and new energy vehicles.

This Special Issue seeks to highlight original research on recent innovations with unique applications of thermal management systems in new modes of transportation. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

Design, analysis, and management of air-conditioning system;
Thermal modelling techniques and the key concepts for cabin thermal comfort;
New structures for battery thermal management systems;
Efficient motor cooling;
Advanced control strategies for TMSs;
Key technologies of the core components (compressors, heat exchangers, fans, etc.) of TMSs;
Application of TMS in extreme high/low temperatures.

Prof. Dr. Mingshan Wei
Dr. Dan Dan
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

energy-saving and new energy vehicles
thermal management
air-conditioning system
battery cooling and heating
motor cooling
TMS structure and control
flow control
phase change material
heat pipe

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 5041 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inclined Installation Effect on the Offset Strip Finned Heat Exchanger Designed for a Hybrid Electric Propulsion System in Electric Vertical Take-Off and Landing

by Sangyoon Lee, Sangook Jun, Jae-Sung Huh, Poomin Park and Byeung-Jun Lim

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4960; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194960 - 3 Oct 2024

Viewed by 743

Abstract

The plate-fin heat exchanger was designed for the liquid cooling thermal management system of the hybrid electric propulsion system for an electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) vehicle. The offset-strip fin design was applied, and the performance of the heat exchanger was evaluated, particularly with respect to the inclination of the airflow entering the heat exchanger. The estimated performance during the design phase matched well with the experimental results. The inclination of the heat exchanger had a minimal effect on thermal performance, with a slight increase in performance as the inclination increased. However, the pressure difference along the airflow was affected, likely increasing as the inclination increased. The sensitivity of various parameters on coolant temperature was also investigated. The air inlet temperature had a significant effect on coolant temperature, followed by the coolant flow rate. Therefore, when designing the thermal management system, careful consideration should be given to the ambient air temperature and coolant flow rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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25 pages, 15854 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Quantifying Emissions in Vehicles Equipped with Energy-Saving Start–Stop Technology: THC and NOx Modeling Insights

by Maksymilian Mądziel

Energies 2024, 17(12), 2815; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122815 - 7 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 780

Abstract

Creating accurate emission models capable of capturing the variability and dynamics of modern propulsion systems is crucial for future mobility planning. This paper presents a methodology for creating THC and NOx emission models for vehicles equipped with start–stop technology. A key aspect of this endeavor is to find techniques that accurately replicate the engine’s stop stages when there are no emissions. To this end, several machine learning techniques were tested using the Python programming language. Random forest and gradient boosting methods demonstrated the best predictive capabilities for THC and NOx emissions, achieving R² scores of approximately 0.9 for engine emissions. Additionally, recommendations for effective modeling of such emissions from vehicles are presented in the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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14 pages, 3468 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Design of Battery Thermal Management Systems for Improving Cooling Performance and Reducing Pressure Drop

by Kai Chen, Ligong Yang, Yiming Chen, Bingheng Wu and Mengxuan Song

Energies 2024, 17(10), 2275; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102275 - 9 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1119

Abstract

The air-cooled system is one of the most widely used battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) for the safety of electric vehicles. In this study, an efficient design of air-cooled BTMSs is proposed for improving cooling performance and reducing pressure drop. Combining with a numerical calculation method, a strategy with a varied step length of adjustments (∆d) is developed to optimize the spacing distribution among battery cells for temperature uniformity improvement. The optimization results indicate that the developed strategy reduces the optimization time by about 50% compared with a strategy using identical ∆d values while maintaining good performance of the optimized system. Furthermore, the system’s pressure drop does not increase after the spacing optimization. Based on this characteristic, a structural design strategy is proposed to improve the cooling performance and reduce the pressure drop simultaneously. First, the appropriate flow pattern is arranged and the secondary outlet is added to reduce the pressure drop of the system. The results show that the BTMS with U-type flow combined with a secondary outlet against the original outlet can effectively reduce the pressure drop of the system. Subsequently, this BTMS is further improved using the developed cell spacing optimization strategy with varied ∆d values while the pressure drop is fixed. It is found that the final optimized BTMS achieves a battery temperature difference below 1 K for different inlet airflow rates, with the pressure drop being reduced by at least 45% compared with the BTMS before the optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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21 pages, 5551 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Modelling CO₂ Emissions from Vehicles Fuelled with Compressed Natural Gas Based on On-Road and Chassis Dynamometer Tests

by Maksymilian Mądziel

Energies 2024, 17(8), 1850; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17081850 - 12 Apr 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 929

Abstract

In response to increasingly stringent global environmental policies, this study addresses the pressing need for accurate prediction models of CO₂ emissions from vehicles powered by alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas (CNG). Through experimentation and modelling, one of the pioneering CO₂ emission models specifically designed for CNG-powered vehicles is presented. Using data from chassis dynamometer tests and road assessments conducted with a portable emission measurement system (PEMS), the study employs the XGBoost technique within the Optuna Python programming language framework. The validation of the models produced impressive results, with R² values of 0.9 and 0.7 and RMSE values of 0.49 and 0.71 for chassis dynamometer and road test data, respectively. The robustness and precision of these models offer invaluable information to transportation decision-makers engaged in environmental analyses and policymaking for urban areas, facilitating informed strategies to mitigate vehicular emissions and foster sustainable transportation practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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22 pages, 9328 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Energy Modeling for Electric Vehicles Based on Real Driving Cycles: An Artificial Intelligence Approach for Microscale Analyses

by Maksymilian Mądziel

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1148; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051148 - 28 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1359

Abstract

This paper presents the process of creating a model for electric vehicle (EV) energy consumption, enabling the rapid generation of results and the creation of energy maps. The most robust validation indicators were exhibited by an artificial intelligence method, specifically neural networks. Within this framework, two predictive models for EV energy consumption were developed for winter and summer conditions, based on actual driving cycles. These models hold particular significance for microscale road analyses. The resultant model, for test data in summer conditions, demonstrates validation indicators of an R² of 86% and an MSE of 1.4, while, for winter conditions, its values are 89% and 2.8, respectively, confirming its high precision. The paper also presents exemplary applications of the developed models, utilizing both real and simulated microscale data. The results obtained and the presented methodology can be especially advantageous for decision makers in the management of city roads and infrastructure planners, aiding both cognitive understanding and the better planning of charging infrastructure networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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22 pages, 28989 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a 470-Horsepower Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Xcient Dynamic Model Using Simscape^TM

by Sanghyun Yun, Jinwon Yun and Jaeyoung Han

Energies 2023, 16(24), 8092; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16248092 - 15 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1643

Abstract

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are employed in trucks and large commercial vehicles utilizing hydrogen as fuel due to their rapid start-up characteristics and responsiveness. However, addressing the requirement for high power output in the low-current section presents a challenge. To solve this issue, a multi-stack can be applied using two stacks. Furthermore, thermal management, which significantly affects the performance of the stacks, is essential. Therefore, in this study, a hydrogen electric truck system model was developed based on a Hyundai Xcient hydrogen electric truck model using MATLAB/Simscape^TM 2022b. In addition, the system’s performance and thermal characteristics were evaluated and analyzed under different road environments and wind conditions while driving in Korea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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14 pages, 3152 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Multi-Objective Compound Energy Management Strategy Based on Fuzzy Control for FCHEV

by Cuixia Lin, Wenguang Luo, Hongli Lan and Cong Hu

Energies 2022, 15(5), 1721; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051721 - 25 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1912

Abstract

A compound energy management strategy is proposed to improve the fuel cell’s durability and the economy of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEV). A control strategy that combines fuzzy control and switching control is proposed, taking into account factors that affect the fuel cell’s durability and the supercapacitor park’s safety. To smooth the output power of fuel cells under frequent variable load conditions, a moving average filtering algorithm has been added. Finally, co-simulation using Advisor and Matlab/Simulink under the World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) compares the proposed strategy with fuzzy control and power following strategies. The experimental results show that the proposed strategy ensures the safety of the supercapacitor park and improves the durability of the fuel cell while improving the economy of the whole vehicle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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Review

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40 pages, 11424 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Modeling, Design, and Optimization of Loop Heat Pipes

by Yihang Zhao, Mingshan Wei and Dan Dan

Energies 2024, 17(16), 3971; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163971 - 10 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1565

Abstract

Thermal management technology based on loop heat pipes (LHPs) has broad application prospects in heat transfer control for aerospace and new energy vehicles. LHPs offer excellent heat transfer performance, reliability, and flexibility, making them suitable for high-heat flux density, high-power heat dissipation, and complex thermal management scenarios. However, due to limitations in heat source temperature and heat transfer power range, LHP-based thermal management systems still face challenges, especially in thermohydraulic modeling, component design, and optimization. Steady-state models improve computational efficiency and accuracy, while transient models capture dynamic behavior under various conditions, aiding performance evaluation during start-up and non-steady-state scenarios. Designs for single/multi-evaporators, compensation chambers, and wick materials are also reviewed. Single-evaporator designs offer compact and efficient start-up, while multi-evaporator designs handle complex thermal environments with multiple heat sources. Innovations in wick materials, such as porous metals, composites, and 3D printing, enhance capillary driving force and heat transfer performance. A comprehensive summary of working fluid selection criteria is conducted, and the effects of selecting organic, inorganic, and nanofluid working fluids on the performance of LHPs are evaluated. The selection process should consider thermodynamic properties, safety, and environmental friendliness to ensure optimal performance. Additionally, the mechanism and optimization methods of the start-up behavior, temperature oscillation, and non-condensable gas on the operating characteristics of LHPs were summarized. Optimizing vapor/liquid distribution, heat load, and sink temperature enhances start-up efficiency and minimizes temperature overshoot. Improved capillary structures and working fluids reduce temperature oscillations. Addressing non-condensable gases with materials like titanium and thermoelectric coolers ensures long-term stability and reliability. This review comprehensively discusses the development trends and prospects of LHP technology, aiming to guide the design and optimization of LHP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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38 pages, 113522 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Review of Thermal Management Technology for Electric Vehicles

by Dan Dan, Yihang Zhao, Mingshan Wei and Xuehui Wang

Energies 2023, 16(12), 4693; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124693 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 19236

Abstract

The burgeoning electric vehicle industry has become a crucial player in tackling environmental pollution and addressing oil scarcity. As these vehicles continue to advance, effective thermal management systems are essential to ensure battery safety, optimize energy utilization, and prolong vehicle lifespan. This paper presents an exhaustive review of diverse thermal management approaches at both the component and system levels, focusing on electric vehicle air conditioning systems, battery thermal management systems, and motor thermal management systems. In each subsystem, an advanced heat transfer process with phase change is recommended to dissipate the heat or directly cool the target. Moreover, the review suggested that a comprehensive integration of AC systems, battery thermal management systems, and motor thermal management systems is inevitable and is expected to maximize energy utilization efficiency. The challenges and limitations of existing thermal management systems, including system integration, control algorithms, performance balance, and cost estimation, are discussed, along with potential avenues for future research. This paper is expected to serve as a valuable reference for forthcoming research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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16 pages, 915 KiB

Open AccessReview

Future of Electric and Hydrogen Cars and Trucks: An Overview

by Aiman Albatayneh, Adel Juaidi, Mustafa Jaradat and Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro

Energies 2023, 16(7), 3230; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073230 - 3 Apr 2023

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 16808

Abstract

The negative consequences of toxic emissions from internal combustion engines, energy security, climate change, and energy costs have led to a growing demand for clean power sources in the automotive industry. The development of eco-friendly vehicle technologies, such as electric and hydrogen vehicles, has increased. This article investigates whether hydrogen vehicles will replace electric vehicles in the future. The results showed that fuel-cell cars are unlikely to compete with electric cars. This is due to the advancements in electric vehicles and charging infrastructure, which are becoming more cost-effective and efficient. Additionally, the technical progress in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is expected to reduce the market share of fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in passenger vehicles. However, significant investments have been made in hydrogen cars. Many ongoing investments seem to follow the sunk cost fallacy, where decision-makers continue to invest in an unprofitable project due to their already invested resources. Furthermore, even with megawatt charging, fuel-cell trucks cost more than battery-powered electric trucks. The use cases for fuel-cell electric trucks are also much more limited, as their running expenses are higher compared to electric cars. Hydrogen vehicles may be beneficial for heavy transport in remote areas. However, it remains to be seen if niche markets are large enough to support fuel-cell electric truck commercialization and economies of scale. In summary, we believe that hydrogen vehicles will not replace electric cars and trucks, at least before 2050. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicles: Technology and Application)

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