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22 pages, 1372 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessment of Impact of Use of Renewable Energy Sources on Level of Energy Poverty in EU Countries

by Iwona Bąk, Katarzyna Wawrzyniak and Maciej Oesterreich

Energies 2024, 17(24), 6241; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246241 - 11 Dec 2024

Viewed by 558

Abstract

The share of renewable energy sources (RES) in the global energy system is systematically increasing, making them the most important element of the energy transformation. Their use enables rational management of limited resources, reduction of environmental pollution, and has a significant inhibitory effect [...] Read more.

The share of renewable energy sources (RES) in the global energy system is systematically increasing, making them the most important element of the energy transformation. Their use enables rational management of limited resources, reduction of environmental pollution, and has a significant inhibitory effect on energy poverty by improving energy efficiency. The aim of this article is to assess the impact of the use of renewable energy on the level of energy poverty in the European Union countries in 2010, 2015, and 2022. A taxonomic measure of development based on the Weber median was used to examine the relationship between the results achieved by individual EU member states in terms of the impact of the use of renewable energy on the level of energy poverty. The research results clearly indicate the existence of disproportions between the countries of the “old” EU and the countries that joined it in 2004 and later. These disproportions concern both the use of energy obtained from renewable sources and energy poverty. In the countries of the “old” Union, a positive moderate relationship was identified between the use of renewable energy and energy poverty, which means that a higher share of the use of energy from renewable sources in these countries reduces energy poverty. In the countries of the “new” Union, however, this relationship was very weak (2010) or non-existent. Since the renewable energy sector is subject to government policy and regulations, the results presented in this paper should be of interest to decision-makers. A stable, long-term policy should provide an appropriate investment climate that provides support for renewable energy projects and reduces the level of energy poverty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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14 pages, 2633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Energy Access Challenges in Europe: A Neural Network Approach to Predicting Household Heating Inadequacy Using Macro-Energy Indicators

by Monika Kulisz, Justyna Kujawska, Michał Cioch and Wojciech Cel

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6104; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236104 - 4 Dec 2024

Viewed by 506

Abstract

This study explores the use of machine learning models to predict the percentage of the population unable to keep their houses adequately warm in European countries. The research focuses on applying three machine learning models—ElasticNet, decision trees, and neural networks—using macro-energy indicator data [...] Read more.

This study explores the use of machine learning models to predict the percentage of the population unable to keep their houses adequately warm in European countries. The research focuses on applying three machine learning models—ElasticNet, decision trees, and neural networks—using macro-energy indicator data from Eurostat for 27 European countries. Neural networks with Bayesian regularization (BR) achieved the best performance in terms of prediction accuracy, with a regression value of 0.98179, and the lowest root mean squared error (RMSE) of 1.8981. The results demonstrate the superior ability of the BR algorithm to generalize data, outperforming other models like ElasticNet and decision trees, which also provided valuable insights but with lower precision. The findings highlight the potential of machine learning to predict the percentage of the population unable to keep their houses adequately warm, enabling policymakers to allocate resources more efficiently and target vulnerable populations. This research is the result of the application of machine learning models to solve the problem of energy poverty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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22 pages, 2954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrification Planning for Off-Grid Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa: Advancing Energy Access

by Bertha Lwakatare, Priyanka Vyavahare, Kedar Mehta and Wilfried Zörner

Energies 2024, 17(23), 5994; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17235994 - 28 Nov 2024

Viewed by 716

Abstract

Sub-Saharan Africa, especially its rural areas, faces significant challenges in achieving universal electrification despite its abundant renewable energy resources. The region has the highest population without access to electricity, largely due to economic, infrastructural, and geographical barriers. Energy poverty is a critical issue [...] Read more.

Sub-Saharan Africa, especially its rural areas, faces significant challenges in achieving universal electrification despite its abundant renewable energy resources. The region has the highest population without access to electricity, largely due to economic, infrastructural, and geographical barriers. Energy poverty is a critical issue that hinders sustainable development and exacerbates inequalities. Namibia’s sustainable energy policy aligns with the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 7, which aims to provide affordable and reliable modern energy access for all. The policy emphasizes mini-grids and decentralized power systems as key strategies for rural electrification. However, despite increased deployment of mini-grids, these solutions often struggle with long-term sustainability. This research explores cost-effective electrification strategies through scenario-based modeling to reduce energy poverty and expand energy access in Namibia’s rural communities, focusing on the existing mini-grids in Tsumkwe and Gam. Using a comprehensive methodology that incorporates HOMER Pro for mini-grid capacity expansion and MS Excel for evaluating main-grid extensions, this study aims to identify the most feasible and economical electrification solutions. The analysis compares electricity supply, total net present cost, and the levelized cost of electricity across these systems. The findings will offer insights into addressing energy poverty in Namibia and provide recommendations for sustainable and scalable rural electrification across Sub-Saharan Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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19 pages, 5100 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Space–Time Forecasting of Heating & Cooling Energy Needs as an Energy Poverty Measure in Romania

by Adriana Grigorescu, Camelia Speranta Pirciog and Cristina Lincaru

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5227; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205227 - 21 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 870

Abstract

Lack of access to basic energy services, known as energy poverty, remains felt in the country, with seasonal changes and an economic divide. The frameworks to measure energy poverty differ spatially and temporally, with climate change and behavioral culture being the essential influencing [...] Read more.

Lack of access to basic energy services, known as energy poverty, remains felt in the country, with seasonal changes and an economic divide. The frameworks to measure energy poverty differ spatially and temporally, with climate change and behavioral culture being the essential influencing factors. This paper is focused on heating and cooling energy demands, which can be defined as an energy poverty metric for the propensity to be at risk of energy poverty caused by climate regime. Employing sophisticated statistical space–time forecasting tools, we build a model incorporating spatial and temporal energy consumption volatility across Romanian regions at the NUTS3 level. The model considers climatic conditions and raw data from 45 years (1979–2023) of cooling and heating degree days to determine local trajectories for the next nine years. Identifying high-energy-poverty-risk areas in our research can provide valuable insights for policymakers, enabling them to develop targeted plans for eliminating energy poverty and ensuring equitable access to heating and cooling. The results underline the necessity of differentiated approaches in energy policies and add value to the general understanding of energy poverty issues and conditions, considering the Romanian climatic and socio-economic context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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17 pages, 1006 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Energy Poverty Alleviation on High-Quality Economic Development: An Empirical Study Based on China

by Fang Yang and Qinfan Gan

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5085; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205085 - 12 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1041

Abstract

High-quality development (HQD) has been listed as the first and foremost task in building a modern socialist country in all respects and also an overarching issue of China’s economic and social development in the new era. To achieve economic HQD, a key approach [...] Read more.

High-quality development (HQD) has been listed as the first and foremost task in building a modern socialist country in all respects and also an overarching issue of China’s economic and social development in the new era. To achieve economic HQD, a key approach lies in integrating energy development with poverty alleviation and fully leveraging the foundational role of energy infrastructure and supply services in reducing poverty. Using the provincial panel data from 2007 to 2017, this paper analyzes the impact of energy poverty alleviation on economic HQD from multiple dimensions in an empirical way and draws the following conclusions: first, energy poverty alleviation drives the economic growth of China’s eastern region and western region, but it cannot effectively promote the synchronous economic growth of the central region, thereby resulting in a greater imbalance in regional development; second, energy poverty alleviation has an effect on reducing the urban–rural income inequality, and such an effect is more significant in the western region; and finally, energy poverty alleviation has a significant effect on promoting economic HQD, and the effect is more significant in the central region and the western region. Furthermore, the transmission mechanism of energy poverty alleviation driving HQD is tested. It is found that energy poverty alleviation can drive HQD by promoting urbanization and technological progress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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26 pages, 2046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Household Energy Poverty in European Union Countries: A Comparative Analysis Based on Objective and Subjective Indicators

by Agnieszka Wojewódzka-Wiewiórska, Hanna Dudek and Katarzyna Ostasiewicz

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4889; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194889 - 29 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 848

Abstract

The study aims to assess household energy poverty in European Union (EU) countries, comparing them based on the Objective Energy Poverty Index and the Subjective Energy Poverty Index. The Objective Energy Poverty Index is derived from indicators such as energy expenditure share, risk-of-poverty [...] Read more.

The study aims to assess household energy poverty in European Union (EU) countries, comparing them based on the Objective Energy Poverty Index and the Subjective Energy Poverty Index. The Objective Energy Poverty Index is derived from indicators such as energy expenditure share, risk-of-poverty rate, and electricity prices. The Subjective Energy Poverty Index includes indicators such as the inability to keep the home adequately warm, arrears on utility bills, and bad housing conditions. Both indices aggregate the indicators mentioned above using equal and non-equal weighting approaches. The analysis uses country-level data from 2019 to 2023 sourced from Eurostat. The findings indicate considerable variation in household energy poverty across the EU, with more pronounced inequalities in subjective indicators than objective ones. Additionally, the study reveals a weak correlation between the Objective Energy Poverty Index and the Subjective Energy Poverty Index, leading to differing country rankings based on these indices. However, the choice of weights in constructing the energy poverty indices does not significantly impact a country’s energy poverty ranking. The paper also identifies countries where household energy poverty decreased in 2023 compared to 2019 and those where it increased. Regarding the Subjective Energy Poverty Index, Croatia and Hungary showed the most notable improvement in their rankings among European countries, while France, Germany, and Spain deteriorated their positions. According to the Objective Energy Poverty Index, Bulgaria, Croatia, Portugal, and Spain demonstrated the most significant improvement, whereas Greece experienced a considerable decline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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14 pages, 3800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Expansion of Electricity Services Considering Affordability Issues: A Case Study in Brazilian Low-Income Households

by Juliani Chico Piai Paiva, Sandra Maria Almeida Cordeiro, Kleverton Clóvis de Oliveira Saath and Gilberto de Martino Jannuzzi

Energies 2024, 17(17), 4231; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174231 - 24 Aug 2024

Viewed by 817

Abstract

The assurance of universal access to electricity refers to not only physical access to electricity, heating, and/or cooling services but also making them affordable to families. This is the case in Brazil, where physical electricity access reaches more than 99% of the urban [...] Read more.

The assurance of universal access to electricity refers to not only physical access to electricity, heating, and/or cooling services but also making them affordable to families. This is the case in Brazil, where physical electricity access reaches more than 99% of the urban population, but a high proportion of households are disconnected due to lack of payment. Affordability is a key factor in planning the expansion and maintenance of the electricity grid. In this paper, therefore, we propose the development of a strategy, called the Payment Capability Indicator (PCI), that provides new information about the relationship between energy cost and family income. The classic indicator, the Ten Percent Rule (TPR), was the base, and empirical research was conducted in two low-income neighborhoods in Paraná state, southern Brazil. The results consider variables that add new information to guide local public policies, combining interventions to improve affordability, energy efficiency, alternatives to energy services and consumer behavioral changes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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28 pages, 8202 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Diagnosing Energy Poverty in Portugal through the Lens of a Social Survey

by Pedro Moura, Paula Fonseca, Inês Cunha and Nuno Morais

Energies 2024, 17(16), 4087; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164087 - 17 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1443

Abstract

Energy poverty (EP) is a crucial socio-economic problem in current society, as it deprives people of a basic standard of living and quality of life. In general, EP is linked to various factors, but it is primarily associated with high energy costs, low [...] Read more.

Energy poverty (EP) is a crucial socio-economic problem in current society, as it deprives people of a basic standard of living and quality of life. In general, EP is linked to various factors, but it is primarily associated with high energy costs, low household income, and inefficient building structures. Due to the recent energy crisis in Europe, the importance of these factors has escalated. Bearing in mind the above remarks, the REVERTER EU-funded LIFE project will develop and test nine roadmaps in four European countries (Brezovo—Bulgaria; Athens Urban area—Greece; Riga—Latvia; and Coimbra—Portugal) to alleviate EP by addressing the poor energy efficiency of dwellings. To directly observe real-life scenarios in designated pilot regions, questionnaire surveys were conducted, involving approximately 300 households in each pilot area. This paper presents and evaluates the outcomes of the survey conducted in the central region of Portugal. The findings allow for a deeper comprehension of the factors that impact energy poverty in Portugal, spanning socio-economic aspects, housing characteristics, mechanical systems, energy expenses, and behaviors, as well as the awareness of available support initiatives. Drawing from the survey’s insights, novel strategies are suggested to alleviate energy poverty, with a primary emphasis on crafting tailored, efficient policies that address the genuine requirements of households and individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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21 pages, 949 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reforming Climate and Development Finance for Clean Cooking

by Olivia Coldrey, Paul Lant, Peta Ashworth, Philip LaRocco and Christine Eibs Singer

Energies 2024, 17(15), 3720; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17153720 - 28 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

A transition to clean fuels and technology for cooking is increasingly recognised as a cornerstone of sustainable development. However, sufficient, appropriate, affordable finance to support the transition is lacking. Grounded in primary data collection via expert interviews, this study’s research objective was to [...] Read more.

A transition to clean fuels and technology for cooking is increasingly recognised as a cornerstone of sustainable development. However, sufficient, appropriate, affordable finance to support the transition is lacking. Grounded in primary data collection via expert interviews, this study’s research objective was to critically assess development finance institutions’ (DFIs) delivery of climate and development finance to address cooking poverty. Interview findings underscore DFIs’ important role in the transition, including to create the ecosystem conditions conducive to sustained investment. However, as a group they are not demonstrating the risk appetite and financial solutions that clean cooking markets need. Nor are they operating with the agility and flexibility required for rapid scale-up. Consequently, DFIs are not optimally fulfilling their mandates to create additionality and mobilise private capital in these markets. Interviewees call for DFIs to reconsider their approach, and we rely on these findings to posit a theory of change for clean cooking finance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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14 pages, 627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Energy Poverty among the Elderly: Insights from a Household Survey in Greece

by Eleni Sardianou

Energies 2024, 17(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010094 - 23 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1430

Abstract

Understanding the determinants of energy poverty among the elderly is crucial for shaping energy policies with significant economic and social implications. This research provides valuable insights into the factors influencing energy poverty among the elderly in Greece. To achieve the study’s objectives, household [...] Read more.

Understanding the determinants of energy poverty among the elderly is crucial for shaping energy policies with significant economic and social implications. This research provides valuable insights into the factors influencing energy poverty among the elderly in Greece. To achieve the study’s objectives, household survey data from 3651 elderly individuals for the year 2022 were utilized. The empirical findings, based on statistical and econometric analysis, affirm the influence of socioeconomic factors on the ability of the elderly to meet their energy needs and address energy poverty challenges. The analysis suggests that both household size and work-related pensions positively impact their ability to address their heating requirements. Elderly individuals with a higher level of education are less likely to experience energy poverty. Additionally, it is found that as perceived health status declines, elderly individuals are more likely to encounter difficulties in covering utility payments. These results underscore the importance of tailoring strategies to promote the adoption of energy poverty measures that cater to diverse demographic and income groups. This information is vital for ensuring that the elderly can afford to maintain a comfortable living environment without sacrificing other essential needs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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15 pages, 294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Energy Poverty Status of Off-Grid Rural Households: A Case of the Upper Blinkwater Community in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

by Mahali Elizabeth Lesala, Ngwarai Shambira, Golden Makaka and Patrick Mukumba

Energies 2023, 16(23), 7772; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16237772 - 25 Nov 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1505

Abstract

This paper analyses the energy poverty status in off-grid rural households and its underlying socioeconomic factors. Employing the Foster–Greer–Thorbecke Technique and Probit regression on data from 53 households, the study uncovers a diverse array of energy sources in use, including firewood, paraffin, LPG, [...] Read more.

This paper analyses the energy poverty status in off-grid rural households and its underlying socioeconomic factors. Employing the Foster–Greer–Thorbecke Technique and Probit regression on data from 53 households, the study uncovers a diverse array of energy sources in use, including firewood, paraffin, LPG, candles, and generators. Despite this energy source diversity, the poverty line threshold, as measured by the per capita energy expenditure line (92.40 ZAR) (1 US Dollar = ZAR 18.20), reveals the prevalence of energy poverty. Approximately 15% of respondents are experiencing severe energy poverty and 22% are facing moderate vulnerability to energy poverty, while over 50% are not energy poor. This indicates that, although they may lack access to electricity, their energy usage and expenditure in other forms might still be sufficient to meet their basic energy needs. This distinction highlights the importance of assessing energy poverty, extending beyond a simplistic assessment of absolute poverty but taking into account the dynamic nature of income levels. Gender, household size, formal education, and social grants emerge as key indicators shaping the energy landscape in the area. The results clearly indicate that male-headed households and larger households are less susceptible to energy poverty, while increasing formal education and social grants increases the risk of households being exposed to energy poverty. These findings suggest that the problem of energy poverty in the area is uniquely linked to social, economic, and cultural issues. Therefore, interventions targeted at addressing energy poverty problems must address the underlying social, economic, and cultural factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

25 pages, 1340 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Assessing the Impact of Shallow Renovation on Energy Poverty: A Primary Data Study

by Roberto Barrella, José Carlos Romero, Almudena Laguillo and Ester Sevilla

Energies 2023, 16(21), 7237; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16217237 - 24 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1313

Abstract

One of the main identified causes of energy poverty (EP) is the low energy efficiency of housing. In this line, since 2018, public administrations and NGOs collaborating with the Naturgy Foundation’s Energy Renovation Solidarity Fund have implemented several shallow renovation interventions in 3660 [...] Read more.

One of the main identified causes of energy poverty (EP) is the low energy efficiency of housing. In this line, since 2018, public administrations and NGOs collaborating with the Naturgy Foundation’s Energy Renovation Solidarity Fund have implemented several shallow renovation interventions in 3660 Spanish vulnerable households. However, the effects of these measures on domestic energy affordability were not evaluated before because of a lack of a proper method. This paper presents a methodology to objectively assess the impact of these interventions on EP. In particular, this work proposes calculating a hidden EP indicator using data from a primary survey and applies it to a local case study (54 vulnerable households in Catalonia—10% of dwellings renovated by the Fund in the region) by processing their characteristics and energy bills before and after the implementation of the interventions. Considering the whole sample of households analysed, the hidden EP indicator drops by 10% in absolute terms (11.2% in relative terms) after the retrofit, and the average EP gap goes from 423 €/year to 313 €/year, thus marking a significant positive effect of the analysed interventions on the EP situation of this population. Eventually, extrapolating the results to the vulnerable population in Spain, this paper points out a series of recommendations that could be useful for decision-makers and organisations when designing and implementing shallow renovation interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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Review

Jump to: Research

20 pages, 881 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Where Does Energy Poverty End and Where Does It Begin? A Review of Dimensions, Determinants and Impacts on Households

by Oskar Szczygieł, Alena Harbiankova and Maria Manso

Energies 2024, 17(24), 6429; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246429 - 20 Dec 2024

Viewed by 680

Abstract

The paper explores the concept of energy poverty (EP) by examining its definition, dimensions, determinants, and impacts on households. The study underscores the necessity of comprehending the multifaceted subjective and objective nature of energy poverty, as evidenced by the proposal of a comprehensive [...] Read more.

The paper explores the concept of energy poverty (EP) by examining its definition, dimensions, determinants, and impacts on households. The study underscores the necessity of comprehending the multifaceted subjective and objective nature of energy poverty, as evidenced by the proposal of a comprehensive tool for measuring energy poverty from a broad perspective. The concept of energy poverty comprises seven principal dimensions, namely, political, economic, health, infrastructure, social, energy transfer, and climate and environmental. Each of these dimensions operates as both a cause and a consequence of energy poverty, thereby creating a cyclical relationship between the various determinants. A significant aspect of the study is the utilization of objective and subjective indicators. These include measures of the relationship between expenditure and income, the technical condition of buildings, thermal comfort, debt, and initiatives taken to prevent this phenomenon at the household level. The concept posits a novel attribute of EP, namely, “transitional state”, which signifies that energy poverty can concurrently serve as a catalyst and a consequence of adverse socio-economic phenomena in certain instances affecting the overall quality of life. The recommendations encompass using a holistic method that considers not only the analysis of the energy poverty index but also detailed and subjective indicators. The proposed tool will enable a more effective formulation of public policy at the European Union level, providing a unified direction to research this phenomenon at multiple precision levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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26 pages, 3974 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Assessment of Energy Poverty and Alleviation Strategies in the Global South

by Ulpiano Ruiz-Rivas, Jorge Martínez-Crespo and Mónica Chinchilla-Sánchez

Energies 2024, 17(13), 3224; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133224 - 30 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1303

Abstract

The incidence of energy poverty in the Global South is identified by the lack of basic access to modern fuels and energy carriers. Impoverished people have traditional biomass and human power as their only sources of energy. This situation of deprivation of basic [...] Read more.

The incidence of energy poverty in the Global South is identified by the lack of basic access to modern fuels and energy carriers. Impoverished people have traditional biomass and human power as their only sources of energy. This situation of deprivation of basic resources, in which (according to estimates of international agencies) almost one third of the world’s population lives, masks other relevant characteristics of energy poverty. Current assessments of energy poverty in impoverished areas and the mitigation strategies being implemented are derived from the development agenda and, with variations in detail and scope, highlight electricity connections and access to clean cooking fuels as guarantors of progress. However, a comprehensive understanding of energy poverty requires focusing beyond basic access, building on the interactions between the supply of energy sources and carriers, the provision of energy services, and their impact on decent living conditions. To deal with the effects of these interactions on the energy poor, several studies have attempted in the last decade to construct an assessment framework centred on energy services. This work discusses the relevant dimensions in the framework (supply, services, and impact on wellbeing), reviews the multidisciplinary work available in each aspect, presents a range of proposed taxonomies, and discusses the different issues. A detailed framework is proposed for the integrated assessment of the supply of energy carriers and energy equipment, the provision of relevant energy services, and the improvements obtained in living conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recognition of and Response to Energy Poverty: Measurement, Policies and Measures)

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