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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "F: Electrical Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 November 2024 | Viewed by 14104

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Livio D'Alvia

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Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy
Interests: thermomechanical measurements; electrical measurements; measurement chains; industrial sensors; energy systems; hydrogen production; power quality; batteries
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Emanuele Rizzuto

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Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy
Interests: mechanical and thermal measurements; storage systems; energy systems; sensors; industrial measurement; battery testing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Ludovica Apa

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Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Interests: mechanical and thermal measurements; sensors; industrial measurement; measurement chain; data acquisition; storage systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, rapid technological advances have stimulated progress, improvement, and development in the application of various measurement solutions to energy systems. Indeed, for the effective design of energy systems for the distributed generation of energy in urban and rural areas, regardless of energy sources, an accurate measurement of thermomechanical and electrical quantities is of fundamental importance for all elements involved, from the energy sources to the energy storage systems, loads, and connections. The measurement of the electrical and thermomechanical quantities is crucial both for the design and the efficiency of energy systems, and as an input for the design of real or virtual control systems. In particular, the development of modern algorithms based on the most recent signal processing techniques, control theory, and artificial intelligence methods, combined with modern metrology, allows not only a correct control of the energy system but also the implementation and proper interpretation of measurements of thermo-mechanical, electrical, and non-electrical quantities.

For this Special Issue, we welcome contributions involving new trends, novel sensing technologies, or applications in the field of measurements for energy systems, in the form of laboratory tests, field validation, AI-based systems, and simulations. Both review articles and original research papers are welcome.

The list of topics includes, but is not limited to, the following:

Metrological characterization of sensors, sensors systems, and/or instruments;
Non-invasive measurements;
Thermomechanical measurements;
Power quality;
Renewable energy systems;
Storage systems;
AI based systems;
Digital Twins;
Simulations.

Dr. Livio D'Alvia
Dr. Emanuele Rizzuto
Dr. Ludovica Apa
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

sensors
monitoring and instrumentation
metrological properties
sensor characterization and optimization
fiber optics
thermography
wireless sensors network
intelligent controllers
energy storage
smart grid
simulation

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 7094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology for Testing Selected Parameters of Low-Current Vacuum Electric Arc

by Michał Lech, Paweł Węgierek, Czesław Kozak and Przemysław Pachulski

Energies 2024, 17(20), 5101; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17205101 - 14 Oct 2024

Viewed by 528

Abstract

This article presents the author’s methodology for testing selected parameters of a low-current vacuum arc, implemented using an innovative test stand based on a vacuum discharge chamber with a contact system mounted inside. In order to verify the validity of the adopted research methodology, as well as the correctness of the operation of the developed laboratory bench, measurements and calculations were made, among other things, of the energy and burning time of the vacuum arc, depending on selected factors, such as pressure and the delay time of the contact opening, calculated from the “passage through zero” of the sinusoid of the current flowing through the system. The tests were performed at 230 V and a current of 5 A for two pressure values: p₁ = 1.00 × 10⁵ Pa (atmospheric pressure) and p₂ = 4.00 × 10⁻³ Pa (high vacuum environment). It was found that the vacuum insulation technique allows a significant reduction in the value of the arc energy and the burning time of the arc. It was also observed that in the case of a high vacuum environment, the ignition of the vacuum arc occurs after a time equal to about 3 ms from the “passage through zero” of the current flowing through the system. Below this value, the phenomenon did not occur. The results obtained provide an opportunity for the design and manufacturing of vacuum switchgear, where there is the prospect of reducing the negative effects associated with the arc burning process in the contact gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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17 pages, 8899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transient Active Power in Two-Terminal Networks

by Konrad Hawron, Bartosz Rozegnał and Maciej Sułowicz

Energies 2024, 17(18), 4620; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17184620 - 14 Sep 2024

Viewed by 422

Abstract

This article presents the hitherto unknown concept of transient active power in two-terminal networks. This phenomenon occurs when current and voltage signals are not sinusoidal but quasi-sinusoidal—in the case of an approximation of transient state. The modification of Parseval’s formula and the power–immittance relations are presented in this paper. To illustrate the phenomenon, a simulation is included for several types of transient states, and their influence on transient active power waveform is shown. The article also contains a comparison of transient active power and classical active power and highlights situations where it is impossible to use classical theory but where transient active power yields measurable results. In the article, an analysis of an idealized case and measurement data obtained from a modeled voltage sag in a laboratory setup is conducted. The impact of disturbance power on the total power in the case of disturbances that may occur in the real power network is demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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18 pages, 2880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Limiting Reactive Power Flows on Active Power Losses in Lighting Installations

by Marek Kurkowski, Tomasz Popławski, Maciej Zajkowski and Zbigniew Sołjan

Energies 2024, 17(16), 4072; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164072 - 16 Aug 2024

Viewed by 621

Abstract

Road lighting is one of the most important services provided by public entities. Entities providing such a service are interested in providing it with the lowest possible financial outlays. When planning modernization, unfortunately, one forgets about hidden operating costs, which are caused by, among others, the flow of reactive energy in the circuit. The use of modern light sources also involves the use of electronic systems in their accessories, which makes these electrical energy receivers capacitive. This is due to the lack of use of individual compensation systems in the luminaires themselves. Due to the above, the costs of capacitive reactive energy flow also increase. Newly designed road lighting installations, as well as modernized ones, are equipped with electronic systems enabling their effective control. The operation of such systems also causes fluctuations in the reactive power value, which must be compensated. Commonly used compensation choke systems also introduce additional active power losses, which makes the expected savings lower than expected. In the article, the authors presented selected results of measurements of the electrical parameters of LED luminaires, carried out both in the laboratory and in used road lighting circuits. The determined amounts of active power losses caused by the installation and operation of additional equipment in the road lighting installation, such as compensating chokes, are presented. The calculations were made based on the example of a selected fragment of the audit of this installation. On this basis, modernization was carried out and measurements of current electricity quality parameters were carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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36 pages, 5440 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compensation of Budeanu’s Reactive and Complemented Reactive Currents in Extended Budeanu Theory in 3-Phase 4-Wire Systems Powered by Symmetrical Nonsinusoidal Voltage Source

by Zbigniew Sołjan, Tomasz Popławski, Marek Kurkowski and Maciej Zajkowski

Energies 2024, 17(9), 2020; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092020 - 25 Apr 2024

Viewed by 772

Abstract

The result of continuous efforts in the development of power theory, Budeanu’s power theory was successfully extended. The mathematical description that has been proposed is based on another concept, namely the Currents’ Physical Components (CPC) theory. With CPC theory, it was possible to describe, in the original Budeanu theory, the components of the load current, including the Budeanu distortion current. The Budeanu distortion current can have a maximum of five components associated with different physical phenomena and related to the equivalent parameters of the load. This article discusses passive compensation, which provides compensation for the Budeanu reactive current and the Budeanu complemented reactive current due to the known equivalent load parameters associated with the reactance elements. In addition, the article refers to a very important aspect when determining the parameters of a passive compensator, i.e., choosing parameters in such a way that the compensator simultaneously compensates for the reactive current and the unbalanced current. The article presents five methods relating to the determination of compensator parameters. Two methods are related to the reactive current compensation only for the first harmonic without affecting the unbalanced current. The next three methods relate to the compensation of the Budeanu reactive current and the consideration of the unbalanced current. Calculations and simulations were performed for all five methods, the results of which are presented and analyzed in this publication. The Matlab/Simulink R2023a environment was used as the calculation and simulation software. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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30 pages, 5026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Budeanu’s Distortion Power Components Based on CPC Theory in Three-Phase Four-Wire Systems Supplied by Symmetrical Nonsinusoidal Voltage Waveforms

by Zbigniew Sołjan and Tomasz Popławski

Energies 2024, 17(5), 1043; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051043 - 22 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 934

Abstract

Budeanu’s power theory, in its fundamental version, describes single-phase sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal systems. Over time, this elementary description has been extended to three-phase three-wire and four-wire systems, regardless of power conditions. Initially, three-phase systems were considered as three independent single-phase systems. A distinct approach was introduced by Czarnecki in his power theory (Currents’ Physical Components—CPC). The energy description and reference of the equivalent parameters of the load are comprehensive in the context of three-phase systems; Czarnecki treats such systems as a whole. This paper introduces a mathematical model to expand the basic Budeanu theory for three-phase four-wire (3-p 4-w) systems powered by symmetrical and nonsinusoidal voltage sources. The proposed approach is based on mutual elements between the fundamental Budeanu theory and the CPC theory, treating the 3-p 4-w system as a whole. In the extended Budeanu theory model, equations for the Budeanu reactive current and the Budeanu complemented reactive current are derived. The article also demonstrates their orthogonality concerning the remaining components, indicating that each of the seven components can exist independently of the others. Furthermore, in the extended Budeanu theory, it is possible to identify which equivalent parameters of the load are responsible for the individual currents (powers) and which components are associated with the total distortion power proposed by Budeanu in 1927. All of the calculations were performed in Matlab/Simulink 2023b software. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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23 pages, 4395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reactive Power Compensation and Distortion Power Variation Identification in Extended Budeanu Power Theory for Single-Phase Systems

by Zbigniew Sołjan, Maciej Zajkowski and Andrzej Borusiewicz

Energies 2024, 17(1), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010227 - 31 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1296

Abstract

This article presents methods of reactive power compensation using passive elements in the form of a capacitor (C) or choke (L) and an LC structure selected in such a way as to lead to the minimization of the reactive current (reactive power) of a single-phase system. The adaptation of the parameters of a passive compensator, reducing reactive power and/or distortion power, was possible through the extended Budeanu theory. In addition, through the extended Budeanu theory and also through the knowledge of the equivalent parameters of the linear load, the obtained results of the increase in distortion power, depending on the structure of the passive compensator, were analyzed. The values listed in the tables, as well as the waveforms of the component currents of a single-phase linear load, were obtained based on calculations and simulation models in MATLAB/Simulink software R2023a. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Power Quality)
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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17 pages, 5485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Changes in Flux Density of Transformer Steel Sheets

by Witold Mazgaj, Michal Sierzega and Marcin Tomczyk

Energies 2024, 17(1), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010171 - 28 Dec 2023

Viewed by 818

Abstract

Magnetic fields in transformer cores are typically assumed to be one-dimensional fields, thus allowing magnetization processes to be regarded as axial magnetization. However, in the core corners or T-joint points of medium- and high-power rating transformers, the magnetic lines have different directions with respect to the rolling direction. This paper describes a method that allows changes in the flux density of transformer steel sheets to be calculated for any magnetization direction. These changes are assumed to depend only on certain limiting hysteresis loops assigned separately to the rolling and transverse directions of a tested transformer sheet, where these loops depend on the magnetization direction on the sheet plane. The selection of coefficients that define the limiting hysteresis loops for several magnetization directions is described, and the condition for the flux density saturation is considered. The resultant flux density in a specified magnetization direction is the geometric sum of the corresponding flux densities assigned to both the rolling and transverse directions. The limiting and partial hysteresis loops determined based on the proposed method for several magnetization directions are compared with analogous measured loops. Additionally, a comparison of the calculated hysteresis loops with loops showing changes in the resultant flux density for several magnetization direction is presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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21 pages, 21358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Voltage Distortions in the Power Grid Arising from Agricultural Biogas Plant Operation

by Maciej Kuboń, Zbigniew Skibko, Sylwester Tabor, Urszula Malaga-Toboła, Andrzej Borusiewicz, Wacław Romaniuk, Janusz Zarajczyk and Pavel Neuberger

Energies 2023, 16(17), 6189; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176189 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1087

Abstract

Agricultural biogas plant operations are energy sources that fit well with rural land use. The continuous increase in cattle and pigs creates the need to manage animal waste, especially slurry. Using it for energy production in biogas plants offers the possibility of obtaining electricity, heat, and highly efficient manure. The thermal energy generated in an agricultural biogas plant is used to heat the substrate in the fermentation process and can also be used to heat buildings, dry fodder, or wood. Electricity can be used to cover the farm’s needs and sold to an energy company. However, the energy generated in the biogas plant must be of the right quality. One of the main factors describing the quality of electricity is the voltage distortion from the sinusoidal waveform. This paper presents the results of a study of the impact of biogas plant operation on the course of voltage and current in the grid. The theoretical analysis of the voltage distortion mechanism at the point of connection of an agricultural biogas plant was based on a simplified power system model consisting of a voltage source and the equivalent impedance of the power system. According to the theoretical analyses, agricultural biogas plant operation should reduce the voltage distortion factor. In order to confirm this statement, field tests were carried out at three agricultural biogas plants, based on which an analysis was made of the impact of the power generated in the biogas plants on the value of voltage distortion occurring at the point of their connection. However, the field tests did not confirm the conclusion of the theoretical analysis. Only in one case (where the biogas plant was connected near a substation and there was the highest short-circuit power) could it be seen that an increase in generation affected the voltage distortion factor. In the other two cases, generation did not significantly affect the shape of the voltage waveform. However, in each of the biogas plants studied, as the generation power increased, the current distortion factor decreased, suggesting that agricultural biogas plants should operate as close to the rated power as possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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18 pages, 7024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Direct Steady-State Calculation of Electromagnetic Devices Using Field-Circuit Models

by Marcin Jaraczewski, Tadeusz J. Sobczyk and Adam Warzecha

Energies 2023, 16(13), 4993; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16134993 - 27 Jun 2023

Viewed by 924

Abstract

Field-circuit models are very often used to model electromagnetic devices with conductive and non-linear magnetic materials. The numerical calculations of the field in the magnetic material must be combined with an equation of an external coil placed in the magnetic circuit. This means that the partial differential equations of the electromagnetic field in non-linear conductive materials and the non-linear ordinary differential equations must be solved together. Effective algorithms for solving such problems are still being developed. The article presents an algorithm directly providing the steady state solution without the simulation of transients. The basic assumption is that the solution can be predicted as a periodic time and space function, which is represented by appropriate Fourier series. The developed algorithm uses discrete partial differential operators for time and space derivatives. It allows us to create finite difference equations directly from the field and circuit equations, which take the form of algebraic equations, generally non-linear. This is a unique approach developed by us, which till now did not exist (and is not mentioned) in the literature. That algorithm is tested on a simple case of a solenoid coil with a ferromagnetic and conductive cylindrical core, in 2D space of radius and time. The calculation results confirm the effectiveness of the proposed approach both qualitatively, with regard to physical phenomena in ferromagnetic and conductive material, and quantitatively, in comparison with the results from specialized commercial software. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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28 pages, 15827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Medium-Voltage Testbed for Comparing Advanced Power Line Sensors vs. Measurement Transformers with Electrical Grid Events

by Emilio C. Piesciorovsky, R. J. Bruce Warmack and Yarom Polsky

Energies 2023, 16(13), 4944; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16134944 - 26 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1661

Abstract

Electrical utilities have relied upon potential transformers (PTs) and current transformers (CTs) for very accurate metering and to provide reliable signals for protective relays. Less expensive alternative sensing technologies offer the possibility of wider deployment, particularly in grids that employ distributed energy resources. In this work, the performance of an advanced medium-voltage sensor is compared with that of a reference PT and a CT and experimentally evaluated for different power grid scenarios on an advanced outdoor power line sensor testbed at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The sensor is based on a capacitive divider for voltage monitoring and a Rogowski coil with an integrator for current monitoring. The advanced outdoor power line sensor testbed has a real-time simulator that is used to generate transient scenarios (e.g., electrical faults, capacitor bank operation, and service restoration), while the analog signals are recorded by the same high-resolution power meter. The behaviors of analog signals, harmonic components, total harmonic distortion, and crest factors are assessed for this power line sensor and compared with those of the reference PT/CT because of the absence of testing standards for advanced outdoor power line sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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19 pages, 4777 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Study and Analysis of Dynamics and Energy Efficiency of Arc Steelmaking Furnace Electrical Mode with a Fuzzy Control Algorithm

by Yaroslav Paranchuk, Daniel Jancarczyk and Pawel Falat

Energies 2023, 16(8), 3451; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083451 - 14 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1411

Abstract

A review of the control laws (models) of alternating current arc steelmaking furnaces’ (ASF) electric modes (EM) is carried out. A phase-symmetric three-component additive fuzzy model of electrode movement control signal formation is proposed. A synthesis of fuzzy inference systems based on the Sugeno model for the implementation of the proposed additive three-component fuzzy law of arc length control is performed. A structural computer Simulink model of the EM control system in a high-power arc steelmaking furnace of the DSP-200 type with an ARDM-T-12 arcs power regulator is created. Computer research into control dynamics indicators under the influence of deterministic perturbations and also integral indicators of energy efficiency when handling stationary random arc lengths fluctuations (corresponding to various technological stages of melting) are carried out. A comparative analysis of dynamics indicators, energy efficiency, and electromagnetic compatibility of the proposed fuzzy and known differential model of ASF arc lengths control is carried out. The implementation of the proposed fuzzy three-component additive control model in comparison with the existing deterministic differential one reduces the dispersion of voltages, currents, and arcs powers, reduces electrical losses in an arc furnace high-power network by 10–22% and increases the average arc power by 0.9–1.5%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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23 pages, 3823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sub-Optimal Stabilizers of the Pendubot Using Various State Space Representations

by Dariusz Pazderski, Paweł Parulski, Patryk Bartkowiak and Przemysław Herman

Energies 2022, 15(14), 5146; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145146 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1321

Abstract

This paper considers the issue of linear-quadratic regulator (LQR) design for nonlinear systems with the use of smooth state and input transformations. The proposed design methodology is considered in the stabilisation task of the Pendubot, which is based on the concept of feedback equivalent control systems. It turns out that it is possible to find a controller that ensures comparable dynamics of the closed-loop system in the vicinity of the set point regardless of the state-space representation adopted. In addition, the synthesis of suboptimal controllers according to the LQR strategy ensuring equal dynamics at the equilibrium point is presented. The properties of the studied controllers were investigated in a simulation environment and using experimental tests. The detailed forms of transformations and linear approximations given can be regarded as ready-made procedures that can be applied to stabilise similar mechanical systems in robotics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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27 pages, 967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploiting the Moth–Flame Optimization Algorithm for Optimal Load Management of the University Campus: A Viable Approach in the Academia Sector

by Ibrar Ullah, Irshad Hussain, Khalid Rehman, Piotr Wróblewski, Wojciech Lewicki and Balasubramanian Prabhu Kavin

Energies 2022, 15(10), 3741; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103741 - 19 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1670

Abstract

Unbalanced load condition is one of the major issues of all commercial, industrial and residential sectors. Unbalanced load means that, when different loads are distributed on a three-phase four-wire system, unequal currents pass through the three phases. Due to it, a heavy current flows in the neutral wire, which not only adds the losses, but also puts constraints on three phases’ loads. In this paper, we have presented a practical approach for load balancing. First, we have considered the existing three-phase load system where the supply is a three-phase unbalanced supply. Before balancing the load, it is necessary to compensate the current in neutral wire. A nature-inspired moth–flame optimization (MFO) algorithm is used to propose a scheme for balancing of current in neutral wire. The information of a distributed single-phase load was used to balance the currents in a three-phase system. The feeder phase and load profiles of each single-phase load are used to reconfigure the network using an optimization process. By balancing the current of three phases, the current of the neutral conductor in substation transformers was reduced to almost zero. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermo-Mechanical and Electrical Measurements for Energy Systems)

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