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26 pages, 7922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microplastics, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, and Heavy Metals in Milk: Analyses and Induced Health Risk Assessment

by Andreea Laura Banica, Cristiana Radulescu, Ioana Daniela Dulama, Ioan Alin Bucurica, Raluca Maria Stirbescu and Sorina Geanina Stanescu

Foods 2024, 13(19), 3069; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193069 - 26 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1348

Abstract

The current study aims to develop isolation protocols for several contaminants of emerging concern (i.e., microplastics (MPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals (HMs)) from different commercial brands and raw milk samples and also to quantify and characterize the risks of these [...] Read more.

The current study aims to develop isolation protocols for several contaminants of emerging concern (i.e., microplastics (MPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals (HMs)) from different commercial brands and raw milk samples and also to quantify and characterize the risks of these contaminants pose to human health. The quantification, shape, color, and chemical composition of MPs were achieved using optical microscopy, micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy. Based on the MP dimensions highlighted by the aforementioned techniques, it can be stated that their length ranges between tens of micrometers and a few centimeters; plus, the thickness in some cases reaches more than 15 µm, and the structure of the MPs can be mostly described as a fibriform with a glossy/matte aspect. The polymeric structures identified were polyamides, poly(methyl methacrylate), polyurethane, polyester, and polyethylene. Chemical investigations (PAHs and HMs concentrations) were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, respectively. The pollution load index (1.091–7.676) and daily intake of MPs for adults (0.021–1.061 n·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹) and children (0.089–4.420 n·kg⁻¹·d⁻¹) were calculated. It can be concluded that the presence of MPs in milk supports the hypothesis that microplastics can act as carriers for other contaminants (HMs and PAHs), thus increasing the threat to health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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15 pages, 2374 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Determination of Free Glycidol and Total Free Monochloropropanediol in Fish and Krill Oil with Simple Aqueous Derivatization and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry

by Guangxin Yang, Yunyu Tang, Xiaoxia Liu, Longlong Wang, Lixia Qin, Dan Li, Xiaosheng Shen, Cong Kong, Wenlei Zhai, Essy Kouadio Fodjo and Chengqi Fan

Foods 2024, 13(15), 2340; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13152340 - 25 Jul 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1930

Abstract

This study introduces a novel method for detecting free glycidol and total free monochloropropanediol (MCPD) in fish and krill oil. Before analysis on high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), p-(dimethylamino)phenol was used for derivatization of these compounds, enabling the sensitive determination of [...] Read more.

This study introduces a novel method for detecting free glycidol and total free monochloropropanediol (MCPD) in fish and krill oil. Before analysis on high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), p-(dimethylamino)phenol was used for derivatization of these compounds, enabling the sensitive determination of these contaminants. The sample preparation procedure includes a simple, efficient pretreatment using NaCl aqueous solution extraction and C18 sorbent cleanup (for demulsification), distinguishing glycidol from MCPD under varied reaction conditions for derivatization (weak acidic and strong alkaline aqueous environments). This approach shows broad linearity from 1 to at least 256 ng·mL⁻¹, improved sensitivity compared to standard GC-MS methods, with the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) for MCPD and glycidol in both oil samples verified at 0.5 ng·mL⁻¹ and 1 ng·mL⁻¹, respectively. Different from previous HPLC-MS methods for direct detection of glycidol esters or MCPD esters, this is the first HPLC-MS method used for the detection of free glycidol and total free MCPD in edible oil. Furthermore, this method can be potentially developed for glycidol or monochloropropane diol esters, which is similar to the current official methods adopted for indirect detection of these contaminants in different food matrices. Application of this detection method to real dietary supplements (fish oil and krill oil) revealed MCPD residues in fish oil (maximum detected: 32.78 ng·mL⁻¹) and both MCPD (maximum detected: 2767.3 ng·mL⁻¹) and glycidol (maximum detected: 22.2 ng·mL⁻¹) in krill oil, emphasizing its effectiveness and accuracy for assessing contamination in these supplements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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14 pages, 712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Pesticides, Phthalates, and Heavy Metal Residues in Vegetables from Hydroponic and Conventional Cultivation

by Shanshan Chen, Chunxia Yao, Jiaxin Zhou, Haiyao Ma, Jing Jin, Weiguo Song and Zhenpeng Kai

Foods 2024, 13(8), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13081151 - 10 Apr 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1705

Abstract

Hydroponic cultivation of fresh produce is gaining popularity worldwide, but few studies have provided a comparative assessment of hydroponic and conventional soil-based vegetables. In this study, we analyzed a series of hazardous chemicals, including 120 pesticides, 18 phthalates (PAEs), and 2 heavy metals [...] Read more.

Hydroponic cultivation of fresh produce is gaining popularity worldwide, but few studies have provided a comparative assessment of hydroponic and conventional soil-based vegetables. In this study, we analyzed a series of hazardous chemicals, including 120 pesticides, 18 phthalates (PAEs), and 2 heavy metals (lead and cadmium) in four vegetable commodities (lettuces, celeries, tomatoes, and cucumbers) from hydroponic and conventional soil-based cultivation. Our study showed that at least one pesticide was present in 84% of the conventionally grown samples, whereas only 30% of the hydroponic samples contained detectable pesticide residues. Regarding the total PAE concentrations, there was no significant difference between conventional and hydroponic vegetables. The lead and cadmium residues in conventionally cultivated vegetables were significantly higher than in those produced from hydroponic cultivation. Lead is the primary heavy metal pollutant across all vegetable samples. The hazard index (HI) values of the hydroponic and conventional vegetables were 0.22 and 0.64, respectively. Since both values are below one, the exposure to these hazardous chemicals through consumption of the studied vegetables may not pose a significant health risk. The HI values also suggested that the health risks of eating hydroponic vegetables are lower than for conventional soil-based vegetables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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16 pages, 1246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Residue Degradation and Risk Assessment of Difenoconazole and Its Metabolite during Tea Growing, Processing and Brewing by Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Determination

by Min Wang, Yating Ning, Yue Hu, Xinyi Cui, Fengjian Luo, Li Zhou, Miao Yu and Xinzhong Zhang

Foods 2024, 13(7), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13071123 - 7 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1345

Abstract

Residue dissipation and risk assessment of difenoconazole and its metabolite difenoconazole-alcohol during tea growing, processing, and brewing was first investigated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). The limits of quantification for both difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol were 0.001 mg/kg in fresh tea leaves [...] Read more.

Residue dissipation and risk assessment of difenoconazole and its metabolite difenoconazole-alcohol during tea growing, processing, and brewing was first investigated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). The limits of quantification for both difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol were 0.001 mg/kg in fresh tea leaves and tea, and 0.0002 mg/L in tea infusion. In field trials, the dissipation half-lives of difenoconazole in fresh tea leaves was 1.77 days. After spraying, the residues of difenoconazole-alcohol increased and then gradually dissipated like difenoconazole. After 14 days, the dissipation rates of difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol reached 99%. When fresh tea leaves were harvested on different days, the total processing factors (PFs) of difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol for green tea were 0.86–1.05 and 0.78–0.85, respectively, while the total PFs for black tea were 0.83–1.13 and 0.82–1.66, respectively. Metabolism of difenoconazole was accelerated during tea processing. When brewing black tea, the leaching rates (LRs) of difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol were 8.4–17.9% and 31.8–38.9%, respectively, while when brewing green tea, the LRs were 15.4–23.5% and 30.4–50.6%, respectively. The LRs of difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol in black tea were higher than those in green tea. The potential threat to human health for dietary intake of difenoconazole and difenoconazole-alcohol residues from tea consumption is negligible. However, the dietary risk of difenoconazole in fruits and vegetables that are essential for daily diets is concerning, with a risk probability of 158%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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17 pages, 1732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contamination Status and Acute Dietary Exposure Assessment of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins in Shellfish in the Dalian Area of the Yellow-Bohai Sea, China

by Pei Cao, Lei Zhang, Yaling Huang, Shuwen Li, Xiaodan Wang, Feng Pan, Xiaojin Yu, Jinfang Sun, Jiang Liang, Pingping Zhou and Xiaomin Xu

Foods 2024, 13(3), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13030361 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1223

Abstract

The Yellow-Bohai Sea is an important semi-enclosed continental shelf marginal seas with an intensive aquaculture industry in China. The current study analyzed the contamination status and the time variations of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in shellfish between 2019 and 2020 from the Yellow-Bohai [...] Read more.

The Yellow-Bohai Sea is an important semi-enclosed continental shelf marginal seas with an intensive aquaculture industry in China. The current study analyzed the contamination status and the time variations of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in shellfish between 2019 and 2020 from the Yellow-Bohai Sea in the Dalian area and estimated the acute health risks to consumers in China. A total of 199 shellfish samples (including 34 Pacific oysters, 25 Mediterranean blue mussels, 34 Manila clams, 36 bay scallops, 34 veined rapa whelks and 36 bloody clams) were analyzed from four representative aquaculture zones around the Yellow-Bohai Sea in Dalian. Among the samples, scallops and blood clams were the shellfish species with the highest detection rate of PSTs (94.4%), and the highest level of PSTs was detected in scallops with 3953.5 μg STX.2HCl eq./kg (μg STX.2HCL equivalents per kg shellfish tissue), followed by blood clams with 993.4 μg STX.2HCl eq./kg. The contents of PSTs in shellfish showed a time variation trend, and autumn was the season of concern for PST contamination in Dalian. For general Chinese consumers, the probability of acute health risks to shellfish consumers from dietary exposure to PSTs was around 13%. For typical consumers in coastal areas of China, especially those with higher shellfish intake, there was an acute health risk associated with exposure to PSTs through shellfish consumption during the occurrence of harmful algal blooms. It is suggested that the government continue to strengthen the monitoring of the source of PSTs and the monitoring of harmful algal blooms and give reasonable advice on shellfish consumption for consumers in coastal areas, such as not eating scallop viscera. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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14 pages, 3351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

AFB1 Triggers Lipid Metabolism Disorders through the PI3K/Akt Pathway and Mediates Apoptosis Leading to Hepatotoxicity

by Tiancai Wang, Xiabing Li, Guangqin Liao, Zishuang Wang, Xiaoxu Han, Jingyi Gu, Xiyan Mu, Jing Qiu and Yongzhong Qian

Foods 2024, 13(1), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010163 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2194

Abstract

As the most prevalent mycotoxin in agricultural products, aflatoxin B1 not only causes significant economic losses but also poses a substantial threat to human and animal health. AFB1 has been shown to increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) but the underlying mechanism [...] Read more.

As the most prevalent mycotoxin in agricultural products, aflatoxin B1 not only causes significant economic losses but also poses a substantial threat to human and animal health. AFB1 has been shown to increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) but the underlying mechanism is not thoroughly researched. Here, we explored the toxicity mechanism of AFB1 on human hepatocytes following low-dose exposure based on transcriptomics and lipidomics. Apoptosis-related pathways were significantly upregulated after AFB1 exposure in all three hES-Hep, HepaRG, and HepG2 hepatogenic cell lines. By conducting a comparative analysis with the TCGA-LIHC database, four biomarkers (MTCH1, PPM1D, TP53I3, and UBC) shared by AFB1 and HCC were identified (hazard ratio > 1), which can be used to monitor the degree of AFB1-induced hepatotoxicity. Simultaneously, AFB1 induced abnormal metabolism of glycerolipids, sphingolipids, and glycerophospholipids in HepG2 cells (FDR < 0.05, impact > 0.1). Furthermore, combined analysis revealed strong regulatory effects between PIK3R1 and sphingolipids (correlation coefficient > 0.9), suggesting potential mediation by the phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K) /protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway within mitochondria. This study revealed the dysregulation of lipid metabolism induced by AFB1 and found novel target genes associated with AFB-induced HCC development, providing reliable evidence for elucidating the hepatotoxicity of AFB as well as assessing food safety risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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17 pages, 4572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Transcriptomics to Reveal the Joint Immunotoxicity Mechanism Initiated by Difenoconazole and Chlorothalonil in the Human Jurkat T-Cell Line

by Yun-Cheng Li, Shu-Yan Liu, Hou-Ru Li, Fan-Bing Meng, Jing Qiu, Yong-Zhong Qian and Yan-Yang Xu

Foods 2024, 13(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010034 - 21 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1036

Abstract

It is very important to evaluate the immunotoxicity and molecular mechanisms of pesticides. In this study, difenoconazole and chlorothalonil were evaluated for immunotoxicity by using the human Jurkat T-cell line, and the EC₅₀ were 24.66 and 1.17 mg/L, respectively. The joint exposure [...] Read more.

It is very important to evaluate the immunotoxicity and molecular mechanisms of pesticides. In this study, difenoconazole and chlorothalonil were evaluated for immunotoxicity by using the human Jurkat T-cell line, and the EC₅₀ were 24.66 and 1.17 mg/L, respectively. The joint exposure of difenoconazole and chlorothalonil showed a synergistic effect at low concentrations (lower than 10.58 mg/L) but an antagonistic effect at high concentrations (higher than 10.58 mg/L). With joint exposure at a concentration of EC₁₀, the proportion of late apoptotic cells was 2.26- and 2.91-fold higher than that with exposure to difenoconazole or chlorothalonil alone, respectively. A transcriptomics analysis indicated that the DEGs for single exposure are associated with immunodeficiency disease. Single exposure to chlorothalonil was mainly involved in cation transportation, extracellular matrix organization, and leukocyte cell adhesion. Single exposure to difenoconazole was mainly involved in nervous system development, muscle contraction, and immune system processes. However, when the joint exposure dose was EC₁₀, the DEGs were mainly involved in the formation of cell structures, but the DEGs were mainly involved in cellular processes and metabolism when the joint exposure dose was EC₂₅. The results indicated that the immunotoxicological mechanisms underlying joint exposure to difenoconazole and chlorothalonil are different under low and high doses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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Review

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20 pages, 707 KiB

Open AccessReview

Levels, Toxic Effects, and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Foods: A Review

by Yu-Shun Lu, Jing Qiu, Xi-Yan Mu, Yong-Zhong Qian and Lu Chen

Foods 2024, 13(4), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13040536 - 9 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2635

Abstract

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are naturally occurring secondary metabolites of plants. To date, more than 660 types of PAs have been identified from an estimated 6000 plants, and approximately 120 of these PAs are hepatotoxic. As a result of PAs being found in spices, [...] Read more.

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are naturally occurring secondary metabolites of plants. To date, more than 660 types of PAs have been identified from an estimated 6000 plants, and approximately 120 of these PAs are hepatotoxic. As a result of PAs being found in spices, herbal teas, honey, and milk, PAs are considered contaminants in foods, posing a potential risk to human health. Here, we summarize the chemical structure, toxic effects, levels, and regulation of PAs in different countries to provide a better understanding of their toxicity and risk assessment. With recent research on the risk assessment of PAs, this review also discusses the challenges facing this field, aiming to provide a scientific basis for PA toxicity research and safety assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Contaminants: Detection, Toxicity and Safety Risk Assessment)

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