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Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard
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Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard

A special issue of Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2022) | Viewed by 27268

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Francesca Bozzoni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
European Centre for Training and Research in Earthquake Engineering (EUCENTRE), Via Adolfo Ferrata, 1, 27100 Pavia, Italy
Interests: soil liquefaction; ground response analysis; seismic hazard; GIS; critical infrastructures; disaster risk reduction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Claudia Meisina

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Via Adolfo Ferrata 1, 27100 Pavia, Italy
Interests: engineering geological mapping; hazard assessment (subsidence, landslide, liquefaction); geological interpretation of satellite interferometric data
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Earthquake-induced liquefaction is one of the most relevant phenomena of ground failure that may have disastrous consequences on structures and infrastructures. Recent examples include the 2010-2011 seismic sequence at Christchurch in New Zealand, the 2011 Tohoku Oki earthquake in Japan, the 2012 Emilia earthquakes in Northern Italy, the 2018 Sulawesi-Palu earthquake in Indonesia and the 2020 sequence in Croatia.

Liquefaction of soils is a phenomenon of instability affecting saturated deposits of loose sands which abruptly reduce their stiffness and strength due to pore water pressure build-up caused by severe ground shaking. Once triggered, liquefaction of soils may yield large deformations of the ground surface with sinking and overturning of buildings and infrastructures. In the Canterbury-Christchurch sequence, liquefaction affected nearly 60,000 residential buildings and the horizontal infrastructure over one third of the city. It is estimated that the total impact of the Canterbury-Christchurch earthquake sequence cost New Zealand approximately €23 billion. During the Japan 2011 Tohoku earthquake, approximately 27,000 houses, more than 2,000 levees and several ports suffered damage from the resulting ground liquefaction. During the Emilia sequence, 12,000 buildings were severely damaged and heavy damage to structures were often associated with ground failure and soil liquefaction. Ground deformations associated to liquefaction during the 2020 sequence in Croatia induced damages to critical assets, such as transport infrastructure, levees and embankment dams.

Efforts worldwide have been spent in recent years to mitigate liquefaction-related damage including developing multi-scale approaches and technical guidelines for the evaluation of the liquefaction potential.

This special issue is aimed at collecting the most prominent research results in the assessment of liquefaction hazard by combining interdisciplinary approaches coming from earthquake geotechnical engineering, engineering geology, soil dynamics, geomorphology and hydrogeology, to provide an overview of the innovative methodologies and a comprehensive state of the art in this field.

Dr. Francesca Bozzoni
Prof. Dr. Claudia Meisina
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • earthquake-induced soil liquefaction
  • assesment of liquefaction hazard
  • liquefaction manifestations
  • zonation
  • settlements
  • lateral spreading
  • GIS
  • liquefaction-induced effects on structures and infrastructures

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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25 pages, 3598 KiB  
Article
Numerical Modeling of the Effect of Desaturation on Liquefaction Hazard Mitigation
by Ataollah Nateghi and Usama El Shamy
Geosciences 2023, 13(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13010015 - 31 Dec 2022
Viewed by 1861
Abstract
Earthquake-induced liquefaction is always a concern when the soil near the surface of a site is composed of relatively loose saturated sand. One of liquefaction mitigation methods is to induce gas bubbles into the deposit to reduce the degree of saturation. A coupled [...] Read more.
Earthquake-induced liquefaction is always a concern when the soil near the surface of a site is composed of relatively loose saturated sand. One of liquefaction mitigation methods is to induce gas bubbles into the deposit to reduce the degree of saturation. A coupled pore-scale model is presented herein to investigate liquefaction resistance of desaturated granular materials. The multiphase fluid, which mimics the behavior of air and water, is modeled using the multiphase single component lattice Boltzmann method. The solid phase is modeled using the discrete element method. The coupled framework was utilized to study the behavior of a soil deposit with the different degrees of saturation of 100%, 92%, and 82% during an earthquake loading. Based on the results of the simulations performed, liquefaction occurred in the fully saturated granular deposit and was not observed anywhere at depth in the desaturated deposits. It has also been found that reducing the saturation level from 100% to 92% significantly affects behavior. In desaturated deposits, higher average coordination number, lower pore pressure buildup, and slower effective stress decay were observed compared to fully saturated deposits. However, it turned out that a further reduction in the degree of saturation from 92% to 82% does not have a significant impact on the calculated parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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28 pages, 10777 KiB  
Article
The Over-Prediction of Seismically Induced Soil Liquefaction during the 2016 Kumamoto, Japan Earthquake Sequence
by Donald J. Anderson, Kevin W. Franke, Robert E. Kayen, Shideh Dashti and Mahir Badanagki
Geosciences 2023, 13(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13010007 - 27 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2978
Abstract
Following the M7.0 strike-slip earthquake near Kumamoto, Japan, in April of 2016, most geotechnical engineering experts believed that there would be significant soil liquefaction and liquefaction-induced infrastructure damage observed in the densely populated city of Kumamoto during the post-event engineering reconnaissance. This belief [...] Read more.
Following the M7.0 strike-slip earthquake near Kumamoto, Japan, in April of 2016, most geotechnical engineering experts believed that there would be significant soil liquefaction and liquefaction-induced infrastructure damage observed in the densely populated city of Kumamoto during the post-event engineering reconnaissance. This belief was driven by several factors including the young geologic environment, alluvially deposited soils, a predominance of loose sandy soils documented in publicly available boring logs throughout the region, and the high intensity ground motions observed from the earthquake. To the surprise of many of the researchers, soil liquefaction occurred both less frequently and less severely than expected. This paper summarizes findings from our field, laboratory, and simplified analytical studies common to engineering practice to assess the lower occurrence of liquefaction. Measured in situ SPT and CPT resistance values were evaluated with current liquefaction triggering procedures. Minimally disturbed samples were subjected to cyclic triaxial testing. Furthermore, an extensive literature review on Kumamoto volcanic soils was performed. Our findings suggest that current liquefaction triggering procedures over-predict liquefaction frequency and effects in alluvially deposited volcanic soils. Volcanic soils were found to possess properties of soil crushability, high fines content, moderate plasticity, and unanticipated organic constituents. Cyclic triaxial tests confirm the high liquefaction resistance of these soils. Moving forward, geotechnical engineers should holistically consider the soil’s mineralogy and geology before relying solely on simplified liquefaction triggering procedures when evaluating volcanic soils for liquefaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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13 pages, 21182 KiB  
Article
An Investigation of Instability on Constant Shear Drained (CSD) Path under the CSSM Framework: A DEM Study
by Hoang Bao Khoi Nguyen, Md Mizanur Rahman and Md Rajibul Karim
Geosciences 2022, 12(12), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12120449 - 6 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2164
Abstract
Soil liquefaction or instability, one of the most catastrophic phenomena, has attracted significant research attention in recent years. The main cause of soil liquefaction or instability is the reduction in the effective stress in the soil due to the build-up of pore water [...] Read more.
Soil liquefaction or instability, one of the most catastrophic phenomena, has attracted significant research attention in recent years. The main cause of soil liquefaction or instability is the reduction in the effective stress in the soil due to the build-up of pore water pressure. Such a phenomenon has often been thought to be related to the undrained shearing of saturated or nearly saturated sandy soils. Notwithstanding, many researchers also reported soil instability under a drained condition due to the reduction in lateral stress. This condition is often referred to as the constant shear drained (CSD) condition, and it is not uncommon in nature, especially in a soil slope. Even though several catastrophic dam failures have been attributed to CSD failure, the failure mechanisms in CSD conditions are not well understood, e.g., how the volumetric strain or effective stress changes at the triggering of flow deformation. Researchers often consider the soil fabric to be one of the contributors to soil behaviour and use this parameter to explain the failure mechanism of soil. However, the soil fabric is difficult to measure in conventional laboratory tests. Due to that reason, a numerical approach capable of capturing the soil fabric, the discrete element method (DEM), is used to investigate the CSD shearing mechanism. A series of simulations on 3D assemblies of ellipsoid particles was conducted. The DEM specimens exhibited instability behaviour when the effective stress paths nearly reached the critical state line. It can be clearly observed that the axial and volumetric strains changed suddenly when the stress states were close to the critical state line. Alongside these micromechanical observations, the study also presents deeper insights into soil behaviour by relating the macro-observations to the micromechanical aspect of the soil. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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17 pages, 16975 KiB  
Article
Verification of a System for Sustainable Research on Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction in 1-g Environments
by Julijana Bojadjieva, Vlatko Sheshov, Kemal Edip and Toni Kitanovski
Geosciences 2022, 12(10), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12100363 - 29 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1889
Abstract
Within the presented research, model tests were performed in 1-g conditions to investigate the liquefaction potential of Skopje sand as a representative soil from the Vardar River’s terraces in N. Macedonia. A series of shaking table tests were performed on a fully saturated, [...] Read more.
Within the presented research, model tests were performed in 1-g conditions to investigate the liquefaction potential of Skopje sand as a representative soil from the Vardar River’s terraces in N. Macedonia. A series of shaking table tests were performed on a fully saturated, homogeneous model of Skopje sand in the newly designed and constructed laminar container in the Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology (IZIIS), Skopje, N. Macedonia. The liquefaction depth in each shaking test was estimated based on the measured acceleration and pore water pressure as well as the frame movements of the laminar container. The surface settlement measurements indicated that the relative density increased by ~12% after each test. The observations from the tests confirmed that liquefaction was initiated along the depth at approximately the same time. The number of cycles required for liquefaction increased as the relative density increased. As the pore water pressure rose and reached the value of the effective stresses, the acceleration decreased, thus the period of the soil started to elongate. The results showed that the investigated Skopje sand was highly sensitive to void parameters and, under specific stress conditions, the liquefaction that occurred could be associated with large deformations. The presented experimental setup and soil material represent a well-proven example of a facility for continuous and sustainable research in earthquake geotechnical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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18 pages, 7040 KiB  
Article
A Detailed Liquefaction Susceptibility Map of Nestos River Delta, Thrace, Greece Based on Surficial Geology and Geomorphology
by Maria Taftsoglou, Sotirios Valkaniotis, George Papathanassiou, Nikos Klimis and Ioannis Dokas
Geosciences 2022, 12(10), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12100361 - 29 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
The existence of high potential onshore and offshore active faults capable to trigger large earthquakes in the broader area of Thrace, Greece in correlation with the critical infrastructures constructed on the recent and Holocene sediments of Nestos river delta plain, was the motivation [...] Read more.
The existence of high potential onshore and offshore active faults capable to trigger large earthquakes in the broader area of Thrace, Greece in correlation with the critical infrastructures constructed on the recent and Holocene sediments of Nestos river delta plain, was the motivation for this research. The goal of this study is twofold; compilation of a new geomorphological map of the study area and the assessment of the liquefaction susceptibility of the surficial geological units. Liquefaction susceptibility at regional scale is assessed by taking into account information dealing with the depositional environment and age of the surficial geological units. In our case, available geological mapping shows a deficient depiction of Pleistocene and Holocene deposits. Taking into consideration the heterogeneously behavior of active floodplains and deltas in terms of liquefaction, a detailed classification of geological units was mandatory. Using data provided by satellite and aerial imagery, and topographic maps, dated before the 1970’s when extensive modifications and land reclamation occurred in the area, we were able to trace fluvial and coastal geomorphological features like abandoned stream/meanders, estuaries, dunes, lagoons and ox-bow lakes. This geomorphological-oriented approach clearly classified the geological units according to their depositional environment and resulted in a more reliable liquefaction susceptibility map of 4 classes of susceptibility; Low, Moderate, High and Very High. The sediments classified as very high liquefaction susceptibility are related to fluvial landforms, the high to moderate liquefaction susceptibility ones in coastal and floodplain landforms, and low susceptibility in zones of marshes. The sediments classified in the highest group of liquefaction susceptibility cover 85.56 km2 of the study area (16.6%). Particular attention was drawn to critical infrastructure (Kavala International Airport “Alexander the Great”) constructed on the most prone to liquefaction areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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25 pages, 60006 KiB  
Article
Seismic Performance Screening and Evaluation for Embankments on Liquefiable Foundation Soils
by Chih-Chieh Lu, Kuan-Yu Chen, Yun-Ta Cheng and Yu-Hung Han
Geosciences 2022, 12(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12060221 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2553
Abstract
This paper proposes a framework for screening and evaluating seismic performance of river earth embankments on liquefiable foundation soils. The framework is executed in the order of simplest screening by soil liquefaction potential map to preliminary and detailed evaluation of seismic performance of [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a framework for screening and evaluating seismic performance of river earth embankments on liquefiable foundation soils. The framework is executed in the order of simplest screening by soil liquefaction potential map to preliminary and detailed evaluation of seismic performance of embankment according to the sufficiency of data and the complexity and accuracy of the methods. The seismic performances of embankments are classified into four levels based on the seismic-induced crest settlement. The method used for preliminary evaluation is based only on the factors of safety of foundation soils against liquefaction and the embankment slope against sliding. The static softening method (SSM) and dynamic effective stress method (DESM) are suggested for detailed evaluation of seismic performance. SSM is a static FDM or FEM analysis for estimating liquefaction-induced settlement by weakening the strength of the liquefied foundation soil under the action of the self-weight of the embankment. However, DESM is a dynamic history analysis for estimating liquefaction-induced settlement by simulating the generation and dissipation of pore water pressure in the liquefaction process of foundation soils under the action of the self-weight of the soil embankment and its seismic inertial force. The damaged embankment of the Maoluo River in the 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake was used as a case to demonstrate the feasibility of this framework. The results showed that the simpler the adopted method is, the more conservative the estimated settlement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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15 pages, 4886 KiB  
Article
Probabilistic Safety Analysis of the Liquefaction Hazard for a Nuclear Power Plant
by Tamás János Katona and Zoltán Karsa
Geosciences 2022, 12(5), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12050192 - 28 Apr 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2277
Abstract
Liquefaction hazard safety is essential for operating nuclear power plants where the elimination of hazards via engineering measures is not practicable. For this, the core damage frequency should be evaluated via integration of the liquefaction hazard into the seismic probabilistic safety analysis. In [...] Read more.
Liquefaction hazard safety is essential for operating nuclear power plants where the elimination of hazards via engineering measures is not practicable. For this, the core damage frequency should be evaluated via integration of the liquefaction hazard into the seismic probabilistic safety analysis. In the seismic probabilistic safety analysis, the maximum horizontal acceleration is used as the intensity measure and as the engineering demand parameter for a simple calculation of failure rates. According to the studies performed for the Paks Nuclear Power Plant, loss of emergency service water supply due to relative settlement of adjacent structures and structural and functional failures due to tilting are the dominating failure modes. To integrate these failure modes into a seismic probabilistic safety analysis, hazard and fragility should be evaluated as functions of properly identified intensity measures and engineering demand parameters, preferable the maximum horizontal acceleration. Since a generic procedure does not exist in nuclear practice, based on the analyses for the Paks Nuclear Power Plant, two practical options are proposed for integration of the liquefaction hazard into a seismic probabilistic safety analysis, and for the calculation of annual probability of failure of critical structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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19 pages, 8073 KiB  
Article
3D Engineering Geological Modeling to Investigate a Liquefaction Site: An Example in Alluvial Holocene Sediments in the Po Plain, Italy
by Claudia Meisina, Roberta Bonì, Massimiliano Bordoni, Carlo Giovanni Lai, Francesca Bozzoni, Renato Maria Cosentini, Doriano Castaldini, Daniela Fontana, Stefano Lugli, Alessandro Ghinoi, Luca Martelli and Paolo Severi
Geosciences 2022, 12(4), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12040155 - 29 Mar 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3377
Abstract
Liquefaction-induced surface manifestations are the result of a complex geological–geotechnical phenomenon, driven by several controlling factors. We propose a multidisciplinary methodological approach, involving engineering geologists, geomorphologists, sedimentologists, and geotechnical engineers, to build a 3D engineering geological model for liquefaction assessment studies. The study [...] Read more.
Liquefaction-induced surface manifestations are the result of a complex geological–geotechnical phenomenon, driven by several controlling factors. We propose a multidisciplinary methodological approach, involving engineering geologists, geomorphologists, sedimentologists, and geotechnical engineers, to build a 3D engineering geological model for liquefaction assessment studies. The study area is Cavezzo (Po Plain, Italy), which is a municipality hit by superficial liquefaction manifestations during the Emilia seismic crisis of May–June 2012. The site is characterized by a Holocene alluvial sequence of the floodplain, fluvial channel, and crevasse splay deposits prone to liquefaction. The integration of different geotechnical investigations, such as boreholes, CPTm, CPTu, and laboratory tests, allowed us to recognize potentially liquefiable lithological units, crucial for hazard assessment studies. The resulting 3D engineering geological model reveals a strict correlation of co-seismic surface manifestations with buried silty sands and sandy silts within the shallow 10 m in fluvial channel setting, which is capped and laterally confined by clayey and silty deposits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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14 pages, 4744 KiB  
Article
Numerical Assessment of the Loading Factors Affecting Liquefaction-Induced Failure
by Davide Forcellini and Anthony Tessari
Geosciences 2022, 12(3), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences12030123 - 7 Mar 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3335
Abstract
This paper presents parametric studies that assess the role of loading factors (i.e., number of cycles, frequency, and amplitude) on liquefaction-induced failure by performing numerical simulations. Most of the existing literature considers the effects of the soil properties on the development of excess [...] Read more.
This paper presents parametric studies that assess the role of loading factors (i.e., number of cycles, frequency, and amplitude) on liquefaction-induced failure by performing numerical simulations. Most of the existing literature considers the effects of the soil properties on the development of excess pore pressure with few research endeavours focusing on the effects of the input motion itself. Numerical simulations are performed herein, via the advanced software platform OpenSees, to generate several finite element models that consider non-linear development of pore pressure inside the soil. Several sinusoidal inputs were considered to study the effects of the various loading factors and compare the responses. The main findings arise from evaluating the effects of several input motion parameters (number of cycles, frequency, and amplitude) on soil liquefaction through numerical simulations. This research study, based on state-of-the-art knowledge, may be applied to assess future seismic events and to update or propose new code provisions for soil liquefaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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12 pages, 8663 KiB  
Case Report
Embankments Damaged in the Magnitude Mw 6.4 Petrinja Earthquake and Remediation
by Ivan Mihaljević and Sonja Zlatović
Geosciences 2023, 13(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13020048 - 31 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1763
Abstract
The main shock of the Petrinja earthquake occurred on 29 December 2020 with a magnitude Mw = 6.4. The earthquake and the aftershocks caused most of their damage in the alluvial plains of the rivers Kupa and Sava, where liquefaction occurred in the [...] Read more.
The main shock of the Petrinja earthquake occurred on 29 December 2020 with a magnitude Mw = 6.4. The earthquake and the aftershocks caused most of their damage in the alluvial plains of the rivers Kupa and Sava, where liquefaction occurred in the loose layers of sands and silty sands. Maybe most important was the damage to some of the embankments built in the mid-20th century to protect the area from floods. Longitudinal cracks along the embankments, in some places transverse cracks, followed by settlement, with some sandy ejecta near the embankments, were obvious consequences of liquefaction in the lower layers, and lateral spreading. The presence of the sandy layers at a depth of 6 to 8 m was known from previous investigations performed in order to improve the flood protection system. Representatives of the Croatian Waters Authorities (Hrvatske vode) who own, manage, and maintain the embankments, inspected all the embankments and, in the first days after the earthquake, carried out the necessary emergency repairs or built temporary secondary embankments. Soon after, the necessary investigation and design of the remediation began. In 2022, construction got underway. This paper gives an overview of the damage, an interpretation of the failure mechanisms, the rationale for the reconstruction methods and the solutions, together with a short overview of the liquefaction analysis performed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Earthquake-Induced Soil Liquefaction Hazard)
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