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Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health

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A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Exercise and Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2021) | Viewed by 57909

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Bruno Gonçalves

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Chief Guest Editor

Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Saúde e Desenvolvimento Humano, Universidade de Évora, 7004-516 Évora, Portugal
Interests: sports science; sport performance; sport training; elite sport; physical education; complex system; collective behaviour
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Jorge Bravo

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Assistant Guest Editor

Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Évora, Évora, PortugalComprehensive Health Research Centre (CHRC), Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal
Interests: Sports science, exercise physiology, sport health, body composition, geriatrics

Dr. Hugo Folgado

E-Mail Website
Assistant Guest Editor

Departamento de Desporto e Saúde, Escola de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Évora, Évora, PortugalComprehensive Health Research Centre (CHRC), Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal
Interests: Sports science, sport performance, sport training, elite sport, physical education, complex system, collective behaviour.

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There are several types of training methods aiming to develop sport performance and improve health indicators. Fundamentally, training methods are the result of manipulating different training variables, and the possibility of combining these variables is vast. Therefore, the search to study the effect of these constraints on sports and health, considering specific contexts and taking into account the magnitude of inter-individual responses, will afford a better understanding of the training interventions.

At the same time, over the years, numerous innovations and technological advances have been introduced to assist the development of athletes’ performance and monitor individual lifestyles. These advances have changed how the training may be conducted, controlled, and evaluated. For example, in sport settings, using technology to collect intense and continuous data of athletes’ activity in their natural environments appears as an innovative and promising step. In health, the enormous diversity of training methods supporting healthy lifestyles and innovative approaches is arising, especially but not only from improved information gathered through technological development.

Papers addressing these topics are invited for this Special Issue, especially those combining a high academic standard with a practical focus on providing knowledge on how training methods improve sport performance and health across the lifespan. Evidence updates urge us to track the progress and effects of training methods.

Dr. Bruno Gonçalves
Dr. Hugo Folgado
Dr. Jorge Bravo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

sport performance
health
exercise
technology
training environment
manipulations

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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12 pages, 971 KiB

Open AccessArticle

External Focus or Differential Learning: Is There an Additive Effect on Learning a Futsal Goal Kick?

by Sara Oftadeh, Abbas Bahram, Rasoul Yaali, Farhad Ghadiri and Wolfgang I. Schöllhorn

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(1), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010317 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2978

Abstract

(1) Background: How to optimally promote the process of acquiring and learning a new motor skill is still one of the fundamental questions often raised in training and movement science, rehabilitation, and physical education. This study is aimed at investigating the effects of differential learning (DL) and the elements of OPTIMAL theory on learning a goal-kicking skill in futsal, especially under the conditions of external and internal foci. (2) Methods: A total of 40 female beginners were randomly assigned to, and equally distributed among, five different interventions. Within a pretest and post-test design, with retention and transfer tests, participants practiced for 12 weeks, involving two 20-min sessions per week. The tests involved a kicking skill test. Data were analyzed with a one-way ANOVA. (3) Results: Statistically significant differences with large effect sizes were found between differential learning (DL) with an external focus, DL with an internal focus, DL with no focus, traditional training with an external focus, and traditional training with control groups in the post-, retention, and transfer tests. (4) Conclusions: The results indicate the clear advantages of DL. It is well worth putting further efforts into investigating a more differentiated application of instructions combined with exercises for DL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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16 pages, 1990 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Differential Repeated Sprint Training on Physical Performance in Female Basketball Players: A Pilot Study

by Jorge Arede, Sogand Poureghbali, Tomás Freitas, John Fernandes, Wolfgang I. Schöllhorn and Nuno Leite

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(23), 12616; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312616 - 30 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2876

Abstract

This pilot study aimed to determine the effects of differential learning in sprint running with and without changes of direction (COD) on physical performance parameters in female basketball players and to determine the feasibility of the training protocol. Nine female basketball players completed 4 weeks of repeated sprint training (RST) with (COD, n = 4) or without (NCOD, n = 5) changes of direction. A battery of sprints (0–10 and 0–25 m), vertical jumps (counter movement jump (CMJ), drop jump, and single-leg CMJs), and COD tests were conducted before and after intervention. NCOD completed two sets of ten sprints of 20 m, whereas COD performed 20 m sprints with a 180 degree turn at 10 m, returning to the starting line. Before each sprint, participants were instructed to provide different fluctuations (i.e., differential learning) in terms of varying the sprint. Both groups had 30 s of passive recovery between two sprints and 3 min between sets. A significant effect of time for the 0–10 m sprint, CMJ, and single leg-CMJ asymmetries were observed. Adding “erroneous” fluctuation during RST seems to be a suitable and feasible strategy for coaches to enhance physical performance in young female basketball players. However, further studies including larger samples and controlled designs are recommended to strengthen present findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Local and Remote Ischemic Preconditioning Improves Sprint Interval Exercise Performance in Team Sport Athletes

by Ching-Feng Cheng, Yu-Hsuan Kuo, Wei-Chieh Hsu, Chu Chen and Chi-Hsueh Pan

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(20), 10653; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010653 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3009

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of local (LIPC) and remote (RIPC) ischemic preconditioning on sprint interval exercise (SIE) performance. Fifteen male collegiate basketball players underwent a LIPC, RIPC, sham (SHAM), or control (CON) trial before conducting six sets of a 30-s Wingate-based SIE test. The oxygen uptake and heart rate were continuously measured during SIE test. The total work in the LIPC (+2.2%) and RIPC (+2.5%) conditions was significantly higher than that in the CON condition (p < 0.05). The mean power output (MPO) at the third and fourth sprint in the LIPC (+4.5%) and RIPC (+4.9%) conditions was significantly higher than that in the CON condition (p < 0.05). The percentage decrement score for MPO in the LIPC and RIPC condition was significantly lower than that in the CON condition (p < 0.05). No significant interaction effects were found in pH and blood lactate concentrations. There were no significant differences in the accumulated exercise time at ≥80%, 90%, and 100% of maximal oxygen uptake during SIE. Overall, both LIPC and RIPC could improve metabolic efficiency and performance during SIE in athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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14 pages, 1457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Pitch Configurations Constrain the Playing Tactics and the Creation of Goal Scoring Opportunities during Small Sided Games in Youth Soccer Players

by Joaquín González-Rodenas, Rodrigo Aranda-Malavés, Andrés Tudela-Desantes, Pedro de Matías-Cid and Rafael Aranda

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10500; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910500 - 6 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4126

Abstract

The aim of this study was to explore the tactical effects of different pitch configurations on the collective playing tactics and the creation of goal scoring opportunities (GSO) during small sided soccer games (SSG) in youth players. A total of 22 players performed a 7 vs. 7 + 1 floater (including goalkeepers) under three different pitch configurations (“Standard”, 53 × 38 m; “Long”, 63 × 32 m; and “Wide”, 43 × 47 m). Eleven tactical indicators related to the development and the end of the team possessions were evaluated by systematic observation. Friedman tests (non-parametric ANOVA for repeated measures) revealed that the long and wide configurations produced more counterattacks (p = 0.0028; ES = 0.3), higher offensive penetration (p = 0.007; ES = 0.41), and more GSO (p = 0.018; ES = 0.30) than the standard format. Regarding the creation of GSO, the wide configuration produced more assists in the form of crosses than the long and standard formats (p = 0.025; ES = 0.31), more utilization of wide subspaces to assist the final player (p = 0.022; ES = 0.35), more number of headers as the final action (p = 0.022; ES = 0.32), and less assists in the form of passes in behind the defense (p = 0.034; ES = 0.28), than the long configuration. The modulation of the pitch configuration during SSG produced different tactical demands, requiring players to implement different tactical solutions to create GSO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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17 pages, 2296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball?

by Julius B. Apidogo, Johannes Burdack and Wolfgang I. Schöllhorn

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10499; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910499 - 6 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4435

Abstract

A variety of approaches have been proposed for teaching several volleyball techniques to beginners, ranging from general ball familiarization to model-oriented repetition to highly variable learning. This study compared the effects of acquiring three volleyball techniques in parallel with three approaches. Female secondary school students (N = 42; 15.6 ± 0.54 years) participated in a pretest for three different volleyball techniques (underhand pass, overhand pass, and overhead serve) with an emphasis on accuracy. Based on their results, they were parallelized into three practice protocols, a repetitive learning group (RG), a differential learning group (DG), and a control group (CG). After a period of six weeks with 12 intervention sessions, all participants attended a posttest. An additional retention test after two weeks revealed a statistically significant difference between DG, RG, and CG for all single techniques as well as the combined multiple technique. In each technique—the overhand pass, the underhand pass, the overhand service, and the combination of the three techniques—DG performed best (each p < 0.001). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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13 pages, 827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An 8-Week Program of Plyometrics and Sprints with Changes of Direction Improved Anaerobic Fitness in Young Male Soccer Players

by Ghaith Aloui, Souhail Hermassi, Aymen Khemiri, Thomas Bartels, Lawrence D. Hayes, El Ghali Bouhafs, Mohamed Souhaiel Chelly and René Schwesig

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(19), 10446; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910446 - 4 Oct 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7962

Abstract

This study examined the effects of 8 weeks of twice-weekly combined plyometric and sprint with change-of-direction (CPSCoD) training into habitual training regimes of young male soccer players. Participants were randomly allocated to an experimental group (n = 17, age: 14.6 ± 0.44 years, body mass: 61.2 ± 7.34 kg, height: 1.67 ± 0.09 m, body fat: 11.2 ± 1.56%) and a control group (n = 16, age: 14.6 ± 0.39 years, body mass: 61.1 ± 3.96 kg, height: 1.67 ± 0.05 m, body fat: 11.8 ± 1.47%). Measures obtained pre- and post intervention included vertical and horizontal jump performance (i.e., squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), and standing long jump (SLJ)), and sprint performance (i.e., 5 m and 20 m sprint). In addition, Measures obtained pre- and post-intervention included change-of-direction ability (4 × 5 m sprint test (S 4 × 5 m) and sprint 9–3–6–3–9 m with backward and forward running (SBF)), repeated change of direction (RCoD), and static balance performance (stork balance test). The training group experienced superior jump (all p < 0.05; d ≥ 0.61), sprint (all p < 0.05; d ≥ 0.58), change-of-direction (CoD) ability (all p < 0.05; d ≥ 0.58), RCoD (all parameters except the fatigue index p < 0.01; effect size (d) ≥ 0.71), and static balance (all p < 0.05; d ≥ 0.66) improvement. Adding twice-weekly CPSCoD training to standard training improves the anaerobic performance of U15 male soccer players. Full article

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8 pages, 312 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Substantiation of Methods for Predicting Success in Artistic Swimming

by Olha Podrihalo, Leonid Podrigalo, Władysław Jagiełło, Sergii Iermakov and Tetiana Yermakova

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(16), 8739; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168739 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2340

Abstract

To develop a methodology for predicting success in artistic swimming based on a set of morphofunctional indicators and indices, 30 schoolgirls, average age (12.00 ± 0.22), were divided into two groups. Group 1: 15 athletes, training experience 4–5 years. Group 2: 15 schoolgirls without training experience. For each participant, we determined the length and weight of the body, the circumference of the chest, vital lung capacity, and the circumference of the biceps in a tense and at rest. The Erisman index, biceps index, and the ratio of proper and actual vital lung capacity was calculated. Them, we conducted the Stange and Genchi hypoxic tests, and flexibility tests for “Split”, “Crab position”, and “Forward bend”. Prediction was conducted using the Wald test with the calculation of predictive coefficients and their informativeness. A predictive table containing results of functional tests and indices of artistic swimming athletes is developed. It includes nine criteria, which informativeness varied in the range of 395.70–31.98. The content of the prediction consists of evaluating the results, determining the appropriate predictive coefficient, and summing these coefficients before reaching one of the predictive thresholds. The conducted research allowed us to substantiate and develop a method for predicting the success of female athletes with the use of morphofunctional indicators and indices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

9 pages, 1344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Acute Effects of a Swimming Session on the Shoulder Rotators Strength and Balance of Age Group Swimmers

by Nuno Batalha, Jose A. Parraca, Daniel A. Marinho, Ana Conceição, Hugo Louro, António J. Silva and Mário J. Costa

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158109 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3256

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze the acute effects of a standardized water training session on the shoulder rotators strength and balance in age group swimmers, in order to understand whether a muscle-strengthening workout immediately after the water training is appropriate. A repeated measures design was implemented with two measurements performed before and after a standardized swim session. 127 participants were assembled in male (n = 72; age: 16.28 ± 1.55 years, height: 174.15 ± 7.89 cm, weight: 63.97 ± 6.51 kg) and female (n = 55; age: 15.29 ± 1.28 years, height: 163.03 ± 7.19 cm, weight: 52.72 ± 5.48 kg) cohorts. The isometric torque of the shoulder internal (IR) and external (ER) rotators, as well as the ER/IR ratios, were assessed using a hand-held dynamometer. Paired sample t-tests and effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were used (p ≤ 0.05). No significant differences were found on the shoulder rotators strength or balance in males after training. Females exhibited unchanged strength values after practice, but there was a considerable decrease in the shoulder rotators balance of the non-dominant limb (p < 0.01 d = 0.366). This indicates that a single practice seems not to affect the shoulders strength and balance of adolescent swimmers, but this can be a gender specific phenomenon. While muscle-strengthening workout after the water session may be appropriate for males, it can be questionable regarding females. Swimming coaches should regularly assess shoulder strength levels in order to individually identify swimmers who may or may not be able to practice muscle strengthening after the water training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

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10 pages, 1431 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

How the Number of Players and Floaters’ Positioning Changes the Offensive Performance during Futsal Small-Sided and Conditioned Games

by David Pizarro, Alba Práxedes, Bruno Travassos, Bruno Gonçalves and Alberto Moreno

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(14), 7557; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147557 - 15 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3902

Abstract

This study aims to analyse the effects of floater positioning within futsal Gk + 3vs3 + Gk and Gk + 2vs2 + Gk small-sided and conditioned games (SSCG) on youth offensive performance on an action per minute per player basis. Three experimental conditions were carried out through the manipulation of floater positioning: floaters off (FO), final line floaters (FLF) and lateral floaters (LF). Thirty male futsal players (U19 age category) participated in the study and played once within each situation in a random order on different days. Offensive performance based on “action per minute per player” was analysed through indirect and external systematic observation. Results showed significant differences between both SSCGs (2vs2 and 3vs3). Specifically, according to the game principles analysed, 3vs3 is associated with higher values of passing and dribbling action to progress towards the goal without beating a defensive line (moderate to large effect size), while 2vs2 is associated with higher values of passing and dribbling actions that beating a defensive line (moderate to very large effect size). In addition, 2vs2 is associated with dribbling and shooting actions to shoot at goal with the lowest level of opposition (moderate effect size). Indeed, whilst the 2vs2 game format seems to promote more 1vs1 situations, the 3vs3 game format encourages more ball possession and collective tactical behaviours. Thus, training tasks intended to improve dribbling and shooting actions should use a smaller number of players whereas tasks intended to improve passing actions for ball possession should include a higher number of players with or without floaters. It seems that the number of players can influence the tactical behaviour of the team. These findings should be considered for the design of futsal training tasks, according to the main objective of the training session. For example, if the coach aims to promote the number of dribbles and shots within a SSCG, 2vs2 SSCG situations should be prioritised. Full article

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8 pages, 339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Anthropometric Data and Physical Fitness Scores to Predict Selection in a National U19 Rugby Union Team

by Luis Vaz, Wilbur Kraak, Marco Batista, Samuel Honório and Hélder Miguel Fernandes

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041499 - 5 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3873

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare measures of anthropometry characteristics and physical fitness performance between rugby union players (17.9 ± 0.5 years old) recruited (n = 39) and non-recruited (n = 145) to the Portuguese under-19 (U19) national team, controlling for their playing position (forwards or backs). Standardized anthropometric, physical, and performance assessment tests included players’ body mass and height, push up and pull-up test, squat test, sit-and-reach test, 20 m shuttle run test, flexed arm hang test, Sargent test, handgrip strength test, Illinois agility test, and 20-m and 50-m sprint test. Results showed that recruited forwards players had better agility scores (p = 0.02, ES = −0.55) than the non-recruited forwards, whereas recruited backs players had higher right (p < 0.01, ES = 0.84) and left (p = 0.01, ES = 0.74) handgrip strength scores than their counterparts. Logistic regression showed that better agility (for the forwards) and right handgrip strength scores (for the backs) were the only variables significantly associated with an increased likelihood of being recruited to the national team. In sum, these findings suggest that certain well-developed physical qualities, namely, agility for the forwards players and upper-body strength for the back players, partially explain the selection of U19 rugby players to their national team. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training Methods to Improve Sports Performance and Health)

11 pages, 1206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Eight-Week Sprint Interval Training on Aerobic Performance of Elite Badminton Players

by Haochong Liu, Bo Leng, Qian Li, Ye Liu, Dapeng Bao and Yixiong Cui

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(2), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020638 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5646

Abstract

This study was aimed to: (1) investigate the effects of physiological functions of sprint interval training (SIT) on the aerobic capacity of elite badminton players; and (2) explore the potential mechanisms of oxygen uptake, transport and recovery within the process. Thirty-two elite badminton players volunteered to participate and were randomly divided into experimental (Male-SIT and Female-SIT group) and control groups (Male-CON and Female-CON) within each gender. During a total of eight weeks, SIT group performed three times of SIT training per week, including two power bike trainings and one multi-ball training, while the CON group undertook two Fartlek runs and one regular multi-ball training. The distance of YO-YO IR2 test (which evaluates player’s ability to recover between high intensity intermittent exercises) for Male-SIT and Female-SIT groups increased from 1083.0 ± 205.8 m to 1217.5 ± 190.5 m, and from 725 ± 132.9 m to 840 ± 126.5 m (p < 0.05), respectively, which were significantly higher than both CON groups (p < 0.05). For the Male-SIT group, the ventilatory anaerobic threshold and ventilatory anaerobic threshold in percentage of VO₂max significantly increased from 3088.4 ± 450.9 mL/min to 3665.3 ± 263.5 mL/min (p < 0.05),and from 74 ± 10% to 85 ± 3% (p < 0.05) after the intervention, and the increases were significantly higher than the Male-CON group (p < 0.05); for the Female-SIT group, the ventilatory anaerobic threshold and ventilatory anaerobic threshold in percentage of VO₂max were significantly elevated from 1940.1 ± 112.8 mL/min to 2176.9 ± 78.6 mL/min, and from 75 ± 4% to 82 ± 4% (p < 0.05) after the intervention, which also were significantly higher than those of the Female-CON group (p < 0.05). Finally, the lactate clearance rate was raised from 13 ± 3% to 21 ± 4% (p < 0.05) and from 21 ± 5% to 27 ± 4% for both Male-SIT and Female-SIT groups when compared to the pre-test, and this increase was significantly higher than the control groups (p < 0.05). As a training method, SIT could substantially improve maximum aerobic capacity and aerobic recovery ability by improving the oxygen uptake and delivery, thus enhancing their rapid repeated sprinting ability. Full article

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18 pages, 726 KiB

Open AccessReview

Effects on Strength, Power and Speed Execution Using Exercise Balls, Semi-Sphere Balance Balls and Suspension Training Devices: A Systematic Review

by Moisés Marquina, Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo, Jesús Rivilla-García, Abraham García-Aliaga and Ignacio Refoyo Román

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(3), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031026 - 24 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5486

Abstract

Research in instability has focused on the analysis of muscle activation. The aim of this systematic review was to analyse the effects of unstable devices on speed, strength and muscle power measurements administered in the form of controlled trials to healthy individuals in adulthood. A computerized systematic literature search was performed through electronic databases. According to the criteria for preparing systematic reviews PRISMA, nine studies met the inclusion criteria. The quality of the selected studies was evaluated using STROBE. The average score was 14.3 points, and the highest scores were located in ‘Introduction’ (100%) and ‘Discussion’ (80%). There is great heterogeneity in terms of performance variables. However, instability seems to affect these variables negatively. The strength variable was affected to a greater degree, but with intensities near to the 1RM, no differences are observed. As for power, a greater number of repetitions seems to benefit the production of this variable in instability in the upper limb. Instability, in comparison to a stable condition, decreases the parameters of strength, power, and muscular speed in adults. The differences shown are quite significant in most situations although slight decreases can be seen in certain situations. Full article

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19 pages, 2852 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Exercise Intensity in Patients with Cardiovascular Diseases: Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

by Catarina Gonçalves, Armando Raimundo, Ana Abreu and Jorge Bravo

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3574; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073574 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4904

Abstract

Exercise-induced improvements in the VO₂peak of cardiac rehabilitation participants are well documented. However, optimal exercise intensity remains doubtful. This study aimed to identify the optimal exercise intensity and program length to improve VO₂peak in patients with cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) following cardiac rehabilitation. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) included a control group and at least one exercise group. RCTs assessed cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) changes resulting from exercise interventions and reported exercise intensity, risk ratio, and confidence intervals (CIs). The primary outcome was CRF (VO₂peak or VO₂ at anaerobic threshold). Two hundred and twenty-one studies were found from the initial search (CENTRAL, MEDLINE, CINAHL and SPORTDiscus). Following inclusion criteria, 16 RCTs were considered. Meta-regression analyses revealed that VO₂peak significantly increased in all intensity categories. Moderate-intensity interventions were associated with a moderate increase in relative VO₂peak (SMD = 0.71 mL-kg⁻¹-min⁻¹; 95% CI = [0.27–1.15]; p = 0.001) with moderate heterogeneity (I² = 45%). Moderate-to-vigorous-intensity and vigorous-intensity interventions were associated with a large increase in relative VO₂peak (SMD = 1.84 mL-kg⁻¹-min⁻¹; 95% CI = [1.18–2.50], p < 0.001 and SMD = 1.80 mL-kg⁻¹-min⁻¹; 95% CI = [0.82–2.78] p = 0.001, respectively), and were also highly heterogeneous with I² values of 91% and 95% (p < 0.001), respectively. Moderate-to-vigorous and vigorous-intensity interventions, conducted for 6–12 weeks, were more effective at improving CVD patients’ CRF. Full article

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