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Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Plant Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 34755

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Dr. Stefania Astolfi

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Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Via S. C. de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
Interests: plant physiological response to mineral deficiencies (mainly S and Fe); problems related to soil contamination with cadmium; the role of membrane activities in the plant\'s response to stress and variations in nutrient availability
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Dr. Silvia Celletti

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Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy
Interests: physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants to abiotic stresses such as deficiencies of natural resources (e.g., nutrients and water) or salinity; analysis of the effects of biofertilizers (i.e., biochar and wood distillate) on the soil–plant system; the use of solid and liquid byproducts of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) in soilless culture systems; analysis of the impact of bioplastics on plant yield and soil quality
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

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Dear Colleagues,

Mineral deficiencies in the soil are a type of stress that plants commonly experience in their natural habitat and are frequently a consequence of declining nutrient stock in the soil or scarcity of soluble forms; sulfur (S) and iron (Fe) are examples of the former and latter, respectively.

Over the last 50 years, the combined outcomes of significant reductions in S emissions from industrial sources, use of mineral fertilizers without S, decreases in use of organic fertilizers, and changes in cropping systems including the use of high-yielding commercial coupled with intensive management practices have led to a widespread S deficiency in soils at the global scale.

On the other hand, Fe exists abundantly in the Earth’s crust, and its widespread limited availability is due to its limited solubility. In particular, Fe deficiency is a typical feature of alkaline soils, covering more than 25 % of the Earth's surface.

Given the implication of both elements for plants, humans, and other animals, it is of primary importance to understand plant physiological responses to S and Fe nutrition at different physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. Furthermore, recent evidence highlights the importance to discuss the interactions S has with Fe in the rhizosphere.

Prof. Stefania Astolfi
Dr. Silvia Celletti
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Biofortification
Fe–S clusters
Iron
iron deficiency
metabolites
methionine
nutrient interaction
root exudates
strategy I
strategy ii
sulfur
sulfur deficiency

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Related Special Issues

Iron and Sulfur in Plants 3.0 in International Journal of Molecular Sciences (10 articles)
Iron and Sulfur in Plants, 4th Edition in International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Endophytic Microbiome Responses to Sulfur Availability in Beta vulgaris (L.)

by Giovanni Bertoldo, Maria Cristina Della Lucia, Andrea Squartini, Giuseppe Concheri, Chiara Broccanello, Alessandro Romano, Samathmika Ravi, Massimo Cagnin, Andrea Baglieri and Piergiorgio Stevanato

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(13), 7184; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22137184 - 2 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2738

Abstract

Sulfur is an essential plant macronutrient, and its adequate supply allows an efficient root storage and sugar extractability in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris L.). In this study, we investigated the effect of changes in sulfur availability on the endophytic community structure of sugar beets. Plants were hydroponically grown in a complete nutrient solution (S-supplied), a nutrient solution without MgSO₄ (S-deprived), and a nutrient solution without MgSO₄ for six days and resupplied with 100 μM MgSO₄ for 48 h (S-resupplied). The sulfur status was monitored by inductively coupled plasma ICP–OES, and combustion analysis together with the evaluation of microRNA395 as a biomarker for sulfate status. Metabarcoding of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene was carried out in order to determine leaf endophytic community structure. The Shannon diversity index significantly differed (p < 0.05) between sulfate-supplied and sulfate-deprived seedlings. Validation by Real-Time PCR showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) of Burkholderia spp. in sulfate-deprived plants as compared to sulfate-supplied ones. The study sheds new light on the effects of nutrient deficiency on the microbiome of sugar beet plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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18 pages, 4760 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Arabidopsis Iron-Sulfur (Fe-S) Cluster Gene MFDX1 Plays a Role in Host and Nonhost Disease Resistance by Accumulation of Defense-Related Metabolites

by Jose Pedro Fonseca, Sunhee Oh, Clarissa Boschiero, Bonnie Watson, David Huhman and Kirankumar S. Mysore

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(13), 7147; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22137147 - 1 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3271

Abstract

Until recently, genes from the iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster pathway were not known to have a role in plant disease resistance. The Nitrogen Fixation S (NIFS)-like 1 (NFS1) and Mitochondrial Ferredoxin-1 (MFDX1) genes are part of a set of 27 Fe-S cluster genes induced after infection with host and nonhost pathogens in Arabidopsis. A role for AtNFS1 in plant immunity was recently demonstrated. In this work, we showed that MFDX1 is also involved in plant defense. More specifically, Arabidopsis mfdx1 mutants were compromised for nonhost resistance against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci, and showed increased susceptibility to the host pathogen P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Arabidopsis AtMFDX1 overexpression lines were less susceptible to P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Metabolic profiling revealed a reduction of several defense-related primary and secondary metabolites, such as asparagine and glucosinolates in the Arabidopsis mfdx1-1 mutant when compared to Col-0. A reduction of 5-oxoproline and ornithine metabolites that are involved in proline synthesis in mitochondria and affect abiotic stresses was also observed in the mfdx1-1 mutant. In contrast, an accumulation of defense-related metabolites such as glucosinolates was observed in the Arabidopsis NFS1 overexpressor when compared to wild-type Col-0. Additionally, mfdx1-1 plants displayed shorter primary root length and reduced number of lateral roots compared to the Col-0. Taken together, these results provide additional evidence for a new role of Fe-S cluster pathway in plant defense responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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13 pages, 3005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unusually Fast bis-Histidyl Coordination in a Plant Hemoglobin

by Stefania Abbruzzetti, Alex J. Barker, Irene Villar, Carmen Pérez-Rontomé, Stefano Bruno, Giulio Cerullo, Cristiano Viappiani and Manuel Becana

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(5), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22052740 - 8 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1995

Abstract

The recently identified nonsymbiotic hemoglobin gene MtGlb1-2 of the legume Medicago truncatula possesses unique properties as it generates four alternative splice forms encoding proteins with one or two heme domains. Here we investigate the ligand binding kinetics of MtGlb1-2.1 and MtGlb1-2.4, bearing two hemes and one heme, respectively. Unexpectedly, the overall time-course of ligand rebinding was unusually fast. Thus, we complemented nanosecond laser flash photolysis kinetics with data collected with a hybrid femtosecond–nanosecond pump–probe setup. Most photodissociated ligands are rebound geminately within a few nanoseconds, which leads to rates of the bimolecular rebinding to pentacoordinate species in the 10⁸ M⁻¹s⁻¹ range. Binding of the distal histidine to the heme competes with CO rebinding with extremely high rates (k_h ~ 10⁵ s⁻¹). Histidine dissociation from the heme occurs with comparable rates, thus resulting in moderate equilibrium binding constants (K_H ~ 1). The rate constants for ligation and deligation of distal histidine to the heme are the highest reported for any plant or vertebrate globin. The combination of microscopic rates results in unusually high overall ligand binding rate constants, a fact that contributes to explaining at the mechanistic level the extremely high reactivity of these proteins toward the physiological ligands oxygen, nitric oxide and nitrite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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19 pages, 1070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gene Expression Responses to Sequential Nutrient Deficiency Stresses in Soybean

by Jamie A. O’Rourke and Michelle A. Graham

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22031252 - 27 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2713

Abstract

Throughout the growing season, crops experience a multitude of short periods of various abiotic stresses. These stress events have long-term impacts on plant performance and yield. It is imperative to improve our understanding of the genes and biological processes underlying plant stress tolerance to mitigate end of season yield loss. The majority of studies examining transcriptional changes induced by stress focus on single stress events. Few studies have been performed in model or crop species to examine transcriptional responses of plants exposed to repeated or sequential stress exposure, which better reflect field conditions. In this study, we examine the transcriptional profile of soybean plants exposed to iron deficiency stress followed by phosphate deficiency stress (-Fe-P_i). Comparing this response to previous studies, we identified a core suite of genes conserved across all repeated stress exposures (-Fe-P_i, -Fe-Fe, -P_i-P_i). Additionally, we determined transcriptional response to sequential stress exposure (-Fe-P_i) involves genes usually associated with reproduction, not stress responses. These findings highlight the plasticity of the plant transcriptome and the complexity of unraveling stress response pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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14 pages, 2994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Iron Source and Medium pH on Growth and Development of Sorbus commixta In Vitro

by Jie Xiao, Yoo Gyeong Park, Ge Guo and Byoung Ryong Jeong

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010133 - 24 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4814

Abstract

Sorbus commixta is a valuable hardwood plant with a high economical value for its medicinal and ornamental qualities. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of the iron (Fe) source and medium pH on the growth and development of S. commixta in vitro. The Fe sources used, including non-chelated iron sulfate (FeSO₄), iron ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Fe-EDTA), and iron diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (Fe-DTPA), were supplemented to the Multipurpose medium with a final Fe concentration of 2.78 mg·L⁻¹. The medium without any supplementary Fe was used as the control. The pH of the agar-solidified medium was adjusted to either 4.70, 5.70, or 6.70. The experiment was conducted in a culture room for six weeks with 25 °C day and night temperatures, and a 16-h photoperiod with a light intensity of 50 mmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). Both the Fe source and pH affected the growth and development of the micropropagated plants in vitro. The leaves were greener in the pH 4.70 and 5.70 treatments. The tissue Fe content decreased with the increase of the medium pH. The leaf chlorophyll content was similar between plants treated with FeSO₄ and those with Fe-EDTA. The numbers of the shoots and roots of plantlets treated with FeSO₄ were 2.5 and 2 times greater than those of the control, respectively. The fresh and dry weights of the shoot and the root were the greatest for plants treated with Fe-EDTA combined with pH 5.70. The calcium, magnesium, and manganese contents in the plantlets increased in the pH 5.70 treatments regardless of the Fe source. Supplementary Fe decreased the activity of ferric chelate reductase. Overall, although the plantlets absorbed more Fe at pH 4.70, Fe-EDTA combined with pH 5.70 was found to be the best for the growth and development of S. commixta in vitro. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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23 pages, 5381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Global Proteomic Approach Sheds New Light on Potential Iron-Sulfur Client Proteins of the Chloroplastic Maturation Factor NFU3

by Nathalie Berger, Florence Vignols, Brigitte Touraine, Maël Taupin-Broggini, Valérie Rofidal, Vincent Demolombe, Véronique Santoni, Nicolas Rouhier, Frédéric Gaymard and Christian Dubos

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8121; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218121 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2430

Abstract

Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins play critical functions in plants. Most Fe-S proteins are synthetized in the cytosol as apo-proteins and the subsequent Fe-S cluster incorporation relies on specific protein assembly machineries. They are notably formed by a scaffold complex, which serves for the de novo Fe-S cluster synthesis, and by transfer proteins that insure cluster delivery to apo-targets. However, scarce information is available about the maturation pathways of most plastidial Fe-S proteins and their specificities towards transfer proteins of the associated SUF machinery. To gain more insights into these steps, the expression and protein localization of the NFU1, NFU2, and NFU3 transfer proteins were analyzed in various Arabidopsis thaliana organs and tissues showing quite similar expression patterns. In addition, quantitative proteomic analysis of an nfu3 loss-of-function mutant allowed to propose novel potential client proteins for NFU3 and to show that the protein accumulation profiles and thus metabolic adjustments differ substantially from those established in the nfu2 mutant. By clarifying the respective roles of the three plastidial NFU paralogs, these data allow better delineating the maturation process of plastidial Fe-S proteins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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Review

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22 pages, 1179 KiB

Open AccessReview

Occurrence, Evolution and Specificities of Iron-Sulfur Proteins and Maturation Factors in Chloroplasts from Algae

by Jonathan Przybyla-Toscano, Jérémy Couturier, Claire Remacle and Nicolas Rouhier

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3175; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063175 - 20 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3630

Abstract

Iron-containing proteins, including iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins, are essential for numerous electron transfer and metabolic reactions. They are present in most subcellular compartments. In plastids, in addition to sustaining the linear and cyclic photosynthetic electron transfer chains, Fe-S proteins participate in carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur assimilation, tetrapyrrole and isoprenoid metabolism, and lipoic acid and thiamine synthesis. The synthesis of Fe-S clusters, their trafficking, and their insertion into chloroplastic proteins necessitate the so-called sulfur mobilization (SUF) protein machinery. In the first part, we describe the molecular mechanisms that allow Fe-S cluster synthesis and insertion into acceptor proteins by the SUF machinery and analyze the occurrence of the SUF components in microalgae, focusing in particular on the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. In the second part, we describe chloroplastic Fe-S protein-dependent pathways that are specific to Chlamydomonas or for which Chlamydomonas presents specificities compared to terrestrial plants, putting notable emphasis on the contribution of Fe-S proteins to chlorophyll synthesis in the dark and to the fermentative metabolism. The occurrence and evolutionary conservation of these enzymes and pathways have been analyzed in all supergroups of microalgae performing oxygenic photosynthesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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8 pages, 631 KiB

Open AccessReview

Iron Transport across Symbiotic Membranes of Nitrogen-Fixing Legumes

by David A. Day and Penelope M. C. Smith

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(1), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010432 - 4 Jan 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3347

Abstract

Iron is an essential nutrient for the legume-rhizobia symbiosis and nitrogen-fixing bacteroids within root nodules of legumes have a very high demand for the metal. Within the infected cells of nodules, the bacteroids are surrounded by a plant membrane to form an organelle-like structure called the symbiosome. In this review, we focus on how iron is transported across the symbiosome membrane and accessed by the bacteroids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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16 pages, 1316 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sulfur Homeostasis in Plants

by Qian Li, Yan Gao and An Yang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(23), 8926; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21238926 - 25 Nov 2020

Cited by 103 | Viewed by 8482

Abstract

Sulfur (S) is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development. S is majorly absorbed as sulfate from soil, and is then translocated to plastids in leaves, where it is assimilated into organic products. Cysteine (Cys) is the first organic product generated from S, and it is used as a precursor to synthesize many S-containing metabolites with important biological functions, such as glutathione (GSH) and methionine (Met). The reduction of sulfate takes place in a two-step reaction involving a variety of enzymes. Sulfate transporters (SULTRs) are responsible for the absorption of SO₄²⁻ from the soil and the transport of SO₄²⁻ in plants. There are 12–16 members in the S transporter family, which is divided into five categories based on coding sequence homology and biochemical functions. When exposed to S deficiency, plants will alter a series of morphological and physiological processes. Adaptive strategies, including cis-acting elements, transcription factors, non-coding microRNAs, and phytohormones, have evolved in plants to respond to S deficiency. In addition, there is crosstalk between S and other nutrients in plants. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in understanding the mechanisms underlying S homeostasis in plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Iron and Sulfur in Plants 2.0)

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