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Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks

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A special issue of Insects (ISSN 2075-4450). This special issue belongs to the section "Role of Insects in Human Society".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2023) | Viewed by 41452

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Dr. Joaquín Navarro del Hierro

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Guest Editor

Sección Departamental de Farmacia Galénica y Tecnología Alimentaria, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: insects for food and feed; multibioactive natural extracts; gastrointestinal digestion models; precision nutrition in colorectal cancer

Prof. Dr. Diana Martín

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Guest Editor

Food Science Department, University Autonoma of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Interests: edible insects; insects rearing; technological processing; nutritional composition; lipid compounds; lipid oxidation; health properties; bioactive compounds
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The irruption of edible insects aimed at food and feed in Europe is indisputable. With Acheta domesticus as the third insect species being recently authorized for food by the European Commission after the previous approval of Tenebrio molitor and Locusta migratoria, the increased agricultural production of insects seems unstoppable. Edible insects are increasingly demonstrating the benefits they offer in terms of macro- and micronutrients, health-related effects and a low environmental impact (emissions, land and water use). The rearing of insects aimed at feed and food is also showing incredible market opportunities never explored before in many European countries. However, other aspects related to allergenicity, microbial risks, consumer acceptability, the best conditions for insect rearing, composition of the diet of insects and the impact of the different technological processing on the quality of insect products, among others, remain to be fully elucidated. Additionally, the potential of edible insects for animal feeding, while promising, still shows contradictory results and issues to be resolved—for example, the best edible species for the different species of livestock, the most adequate replacement level of traditional ingredients in feeds by insect meals, or the impact on productive parameters and animal health. This Special Issue will highlight the latest research focused on the convenience of insects for food and feed in the widest sense, but also on limitations that still need to be overcome for the consolidation of insects as a valuable alternative to other traditional food and feed sources.

Dr. Joaquín Navarro del Hierro
Dr. Diana Martín
Guest Editors

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Keywords

insect rearing
insect processing (slaughter, drying, defatting, etc.)
aquaculture, poultry, and pig feeding
insect extracts
bioactive compounds
bioactivity
consumer acceptability
allergens
microbial risks
characterization of insect products
circular economy

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 4196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Interaction of Slaughtering, Drying, and Defatting Methods Differently Affects Oxidative Quality of the Fat from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae

by Raúl Hurtado-Ribeira, Diego Martín Hernández, David Villanueva-Bermejo, Mónica R. García-Risco, M. Dolores Hernández, Luis Vázquez, Tiziana Fornari and Diana Martin

Insects 2023, 14(4), 368; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14040368 - 8 Apr 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3464

Abstract

The interrelation effect of slaughtering, drying, and defatting methods of BSFL on the oxidative quality of the derived fat was studied. Blanching and freezing were compared as slaughtering methods, followed by oven or freeze-drying for drying and mechanical pressing or SFE for defatting. The oxidative state and stability of the extracted fat and defatted meals were monitored immediately after their production, using peroxide value (PV) and Rancimat test, and over 24 weeks of storage. Slaughtering and drying methods had an independent effect on PV, with freezing and freeze-drying being the best methods. Mechanical pressing and SFE were comparable and superior to conventional hexane defatting. Interactions were observed between slaughtering and defatting, drying and defatting, and between all three factors. Generally, freeze-drying combined with any of the slaughtering and defatting methods resulted in the lowest PVs, with mechanical pressing being preferred. Freeze-drying plus mechanical pressing also produced the most stable fats during storage according to the evolution of PV, while the combination of blanching and SFE produced the least stable. A significant correlation was found between the PV at 24 weeks and the antioxidant activity of the fats. Contrary to storage assays, in accelerated Rancimat assays, freeze-dried samples were the least stable, which was partially attributed to the significant correlation with the acid values of the samples. Defatted meals followed a similar pattern to the extracted fat, except for worse oxidation for SFE defatting. Therefore, the different processing methods of slaughtering, drying, and defatting of BSFL differently affect lipid oxidation, with interactions between such successive steps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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17 pages, 2980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tenebrio molitor as a Clean Label Ingredient to Produce Nutritionally Enriched Food Emulsions

by Maribel Aybar, Sara Simões, Joana Ride Sales, Joel Santos, Diogo Figueira and Anabela Raymundo

Insects 2023, 14(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14020147 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2958

Abstract

Tenebrio molitor flour, a sustainable source of protein and bioactive compounds, was used as a clean label ingredient in order to reformulate a commercial hummus sauce, replacing egg yolk and modified starch, improving its nutritional quality. For this purpose, the impact of different concentrations of insect flour on the sauce was studied. Rheology properties, texture profile analysis, and the microstructure of the sauces were analyzed. Nutritional profile analysis was carried out, as well as bioactivity, namely the total phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity. Sensory analysis was conducted to determine the consumer’s acceptance. At low concentrations (up to 7.5% of T. molitor flour) the sauce structure remained practically unchanged. However, for higher additions of T. molitor (10% and 15%), a loss of firmness, adhesiveness and viscosity was observed. Structure parameters such as elastic modulus (G’) at 1 Hz of the sauces with 10% and 15% were significantly lower than the commercial sauce, indicating a loss of structure caused by Tenebrio flour incorporation. Although the formulation with 7.5% T. molitor flour was not the best rated in the sensory analysis, it showed a higher antioxidant capacity compared to the commercial standard. In addition, this formulation also presented the highest concentration in total phenolic compounds (16.25 mg GAE/g) and significantly increased the content of proteins (from 4.25% to 7.97%) and some minerals, compared to the standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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15 pages, 454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transformation Capability Optimization and Product Application Potential of Proteatia brevitarsis (Coleoptera: Cetoniidae) Larvae on Cotton Stalks

by Guangjie Zhang, Yeshan Xu, Shuai Zhang, Andong Xu, Zhuo Meng, Hao Ge, Jing Li, Yusheng Liu and Deying Ma

Insects 2022, 13(12), 1083; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13121083 - 24 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1596

Abstract

Cotton stalks (CS) are a potential agricultural biomass resource. We investigated the use of CS as a feed for Proteatia brevitarsis Lewis larvae and the resulting frass (larvae dung-sand) as a fertilizer. Based on a three-factor experiment (decomposition inoculant, fermentation duration, and cattle manure ratio), the optimal parameters for the transformation of CS using P. brevitarsis larvae were determined as 40–50% of cattle manure, the use of VT inoculant and a fermentation duration of 25–30 days. Regarding the products of the transformation, the protein content of the larval body was as high as 52.49%, and the fat content was 11.7%, which is a suitable-quality insect protein source. The organic matter content of larvae dung-sand was 54.8%, and the content of total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (TNPK) was 9.04%, which is twice more than that of the organic fertilizer standard (NY525-2021, Beijing, China, TNPK ≥ 4.0%), and larvae dung-sand has the potential of fertilizer application. Therefore, CS as a feed and fertilizer based on the transformation of P. brevitarsis larvae is feasible, and it is a highly efficient way to promote the utilization of both CS and cattle manure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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15 pages, 995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Content and Amino Acid Profiles of Selected Edible Insect Species from the Democratic Republic of Congo Relevant for Transboundary Trade across Africa

by Papy Nsevolo Miankeba, Alabi Taofic, Nkoba Kiatoko, Kambashi Mutiaka, Frédéric Francis and Rudy Caparros Megido

Insects 2022, 13(11), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13110994 - 29 Oct 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3382

Abstract

This study analyzed the protein content of ten edible insect species (using the Dumas method), then focused on the amino acid (AA) profiles of the six major commercially relevant species using HPLC (high-pressure (or performance) liquid chromatography). The protein contents varied significantly from 46.1% to 52.9% (dry matter); the Orthoptera representative yielding both the highest protein content and the highest values in three essential amino acids (EAAs). Regarding Lepidoptera species, the protein content of Saturniidae varied more than for Notodontidae. Imbrasia ertli gave the best example of a species that could be suggested for dietary supplementation of cereal-based diets, as the sample contained the highest values in five EAAs and for the EAA index. Furthermore, first-limiting AAs in the selected insects have also been pointed out (based on a species-specific AA score), supporting that the real benefit from eating insects is correlated to a varied diet. Additionally, preliminary insights into AA distribution patterns according to taxa provided three clusters based on protein quality and should be completed further to help tailor prescriptions of dietary diets. Since the AA composition of the selected insects was close to the FAO/WHO EAA requirement pattern for preschool children and met the requirements of 40% EAAs with high ratio EAAs/NEAAs, the current study endorses reports of edible insects as nutrient-rich and sustainable protein sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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18 pages, 2338 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of a Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Extract on Metabolic Syndrome-Related Pathologies: In Vitro Insulin Sensitivity, Inflammatory Response, Hypolipidemic Activity and Oxidative Stress

by Joaquín Navarro del Hierro, Emma Cantero-Bahillo, M. Teresa Fernández-Felipe, Mónica R. García-Risco, Tiziana Fornari, Patricia Rada, Laura Doblado, Vitor Ferreira, Ana B. Hitos, Ángela M. Valverde, María Monsalve and Diana Martin

Insects 2022, 13(10), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13100896 - 30 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3640

Abstract

The mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus 1758) is gaining importance as one of the most popular edible insects. Studies focusing on its bioactivities are increasing, although alternative forms of consumption other than the whole insect or flour, such as bioactive non-protein extracts, remain underexplored. Furthermore, the incidence of metabolic syndrome-related pathologies keeps increasing, hence the importance of seeking novel natural sources for reducing the impact of certain risk factors. The aim was to study the potential of a non-protein mealworm extract on metabolic syndrome-related pathologies, obtained with ethanol:water (1:1, v/v) by ultrasound-assisted extraction. We characterized the extract by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry and assessed its hypolipidemic potential, its ability to scavenger free radicals, to attenuate the inflammatory response in microglial cells, to affect mitochondrial respiration and to enhance insulin sensitivity in mouse hepatocytes. The extract contained fatty acids, monoglycerides, amino acids, certain acids and sugars. The mealworm extract caused a 30% pancreatic lipase inhibition, 80% DPPH· scavenging activity and 55.9% reduction in the bioaccessibility of cholesterol (p = 0.009). The extract was effective in decreasing iNOS levels, increasing basal, maximal and ATP coupled respiration as well as enhancing insulin-mediated AKT phosphorylation at low insulin concentrations (p < 0.05). The potential of a non-protein bioactive mealworm extract against metabolic syndrome-related pathologies is shown, although further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms and relationship with compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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16 pages, 2759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modulating the Fatty Acid Profiles of Hermetia illucens Larvae Fats by Dietary Enrichment with Different Oilseeds: A Sustainable Way for Future Use in Feed and Food

by Bogdan Georgescu, Anca Mihaela Boaru, Leon Muntean, Nicușor Sima, Dănuț Ioan Struți, Tudor Andrei Păpuc and Carmen Georgescu

Insects 2022, 13(9), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13090801 - 1 Sep 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2823

Abstract

Edible insects such as the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens L. represent a potential and sustainable source of nutrients for food and feed due to their valuable nutritional composition, which can be modulated through dietary enrichment. The high content of saturated fatty acid (FA) of Hermetia illucens larvae fats can be modulated through dietary enrichment as a result of adding vegetable oils in the rearing substrate. Therefore, the present research aims to highlight the effects of a 10% addition of vegetable oils from five dietary fat sources (linseed oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, and hempseed oil) on the growth, development, reproductive performance, and the fat and fatty acids profile of H. illucens. Oil inclusion in the larval diet improved (p < 0.05) the weight of larvae, prepupae, pupae, and imago without influencing (p > 0.05) the egg clutch weight and the number of eggs in the clutch. In addition, the larvae fatty acid profile was different (p < 0.001) according to the oil type, because the unsaturated FAs (UFA) increased from 11.23 to 48.74% of FAME, as well as according to the larvae age, because the saturated FAs decreased from 85.86 to 49.56% of FAME. Linseed oil inclusion led to the improvement of the FA profile at 10 days age of larvae, followed by hempseed and rapeseed oil. These three dietary treatments recorded the highest concentrations in UFA (29.94–48.74% of FAME), especially in polyunsaturated FA (18.91–37.22% of FAME) from the omega-3 series (3.19–15.55% of FAME) and the appropriate n–6/n–3 ratio. As a result, the degree of the lipid polyunsaturation index increased (17.76–41.44) and the value of the atherogenic (3.22–1.22) and thrombogenic (1.43–0.48) indices decreased. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that enriching the larval diet with these oils rich in UFA can modulate the larvae FA profile, making them suitable sources of quality fats for feed and indirectly for food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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13 pages, 1753 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Determining the Effect of Different Reproduction Factors on the Yield and Hatching of Tenebrio Molitor Eggs

by Lotte Frooninckx, Siebe Berrens, Meggie Van Peer, Ann Wuyts, Laurens Broeckx and Sabine Van Miert

Insects 2022, 13(7), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070615 - 8 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3151

Abstract

Whereas the production of conventional livestock can rely on years of knowledge and experience, the mealworm production industry is still in its early stages. Although the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor has been cultivated as feed for pets and zoo animals for quite some time, the optimization of the reproduction process has not been widely explored. For reproduction, beetles are placed in crates supplemented with a substrate to oviposit their eggs. After a specified time, the beetles are removed, and the eggs are further cultivated to develop into larvae. Factors such as oviposition duration and beetle density influence the number of produced mealworms per beetle, partly due to the cannibalistic behavior of the beetles. However, reproductive success has mostly been assessed by determining the number of offspring several weeks after oviposition. As a result, the number of eggs laid and their hatch rates are unknown. In this research, eggs are separated from the oviposition substrate, i.e., harvested. This approach allows to determine the influence of beetle density, oviposition duration, beetle age and the use of a grid during oviposition on the number of eggs produced and the egg hatching rate and timing thereof. In addition, the influence of the harvesting method on the hatching of T. molitor′s eggs was determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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Review

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17 pages, 986 KiB

Open AccessReview

Beyond Human Nutrition of Edible Insects: Health Benefits and Safety Aspects

by José E. Aguilar-Toalá, Rosy G. Cruz-Monterrosa and Andrea M. Liceaga

Insects 2022, 13(11), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13111007 - 1 Nov 2022

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 13907

Abstract

Nowadays, edible insects are considered an outstanding source of nutrients, primarily because they contain high-quality protein, amino acids, and vitamins. Insects are considered a promising alternative protein source towards alleviating future global food shortage problems due to their production considered as being more sustainable by using less agricultural land and water, as well as releasing a smaller amount of greenhouse gas emissions. However, other important aspects to consider about the consumption of edible insects include their health benefits and some safety aspects, which has been relatively overlooked. In this sense, edible insects contain bioactive compounds that can provide diverse bioactivities, such as antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory with a positive impact on human health. On the other hand, edible insects are a nutrient-rich food that can provide a perfect growth medium for diverse microorganisms, as well as possess some anti-nutritive factors. These two main aspects could represent food safety concerns for consumers. In this context, recent scientific evidence indicates that preservation methods, mainly thermal treatments, utilized in the cooking or processing of edible insects decreased the microbial levels and anti-nutritive factors, which suggests that edible insects do not represent a critical biological risk to humans. Besides, edible insects could have a positive effect on gut microbiota, either by their pre-biotic effect or their antimicrobial activity towards pathogens. Thus, this review is focused on studies related to the health benefits of edible insects and their isolated components, as well as discussion about potential issues related to their microbial content and anti-nutritive factors; this review will provide a synopsis on whether edible insects may be considered safe for human consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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19 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

In Vitro Crude Protein Digestibility of Insects: A Review

by María Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Fernando G. Barroso, Dmitri Fabrikov and María José Sánchez-Muros

Insects 2022, 13(8), 682; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13080682 - 28 Jul 2022

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4718

Abstract

The high protein content of insects has been widely studied. They can be a good food alternative, and therefore it is important to study the effect of digestion on their protein. This review examines the different in vitro protein digestibility methodologies used in the study of different edible insects in articles published up to 2021. The most important variables to be taken into account in in vitro hydrolysis are the following: phases (oral, gastric and intestinal), enzymes, incubation time and temperature, method of quantification of protein hydrolysis and sample preprocessing. Insects have high digestibility data, which can increase or decrease depending on the processing of the insect prior to digestion, so it is important to investigate which processing methods improve digestibility. The most commonly used methods are gut extraction, different methods of slaughtering (freezing or blanching), obtaining protein isolates, defatting, thermal processing (drying or cooking) and extrusion. Some limitations have been encountered in discussing the results due to the diversity of methodologies used for digestion and digestibility calculation. In addition, articles evaluating the effect of insect processing are very limited. It is concluded that there is a need for the standardisation of in vitro hydrolysis protocols and their quantification to facilitate comparisons in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as Food and Feed: Opportunities and Risks)

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