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Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges
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Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges

A special issue of Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology (ISSN 2411-5142). This special issue belongs to the section "Athletic Training and Human Performance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2023) | Viewed by 12969

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Maria Francesca Piacentini

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Human Movement and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy
Interests: training monitoring; elite athletes; endurance athletes (open water swimmers, triathletes and runners) functional and non-functional overreaching; overtraining prevention
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Veronica Vleck

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centre for the Interdisciplinary Study of Human Performance (CIPER), Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, University of Lisbon, 1499-002 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: medical support; elites; training; health in triathletes both across the lifespan and vs. their sedentary age-matched peers; training adaptation; training diary based predictive models that can be used to minimize the occurrence of non-functional overreaching; injury and illness; pacing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Open water swimming (OWS) has received increasing attention since its inception into the Olympic Games in 2008. However, as the 10 km (“marathon swimming”) event is a relatively young Olympic discipline, many of the existing training (periodization) and nutrition guidelines for it have been borrowed from land-based disciplines of a similar duration. This is despite the unique environmental challenges (e.g., unpredictable waves, tides, and currents) that OWS swimming presents, and which both influence the effective swimming distance and differentiate it from other aquatic sports.

OWS events over unconventional distances (e.g., the 34-km “English Channel Swim”, the 32.2-km “Catalina Channel”, the 36-km “Maratona del Golfo Capri-Napoli”, and the 40-km “Manhattan Island” race) have also seen an increasing number of participants in recent years.

OWS also forms part of triathlon competition. As such, triathlon OWS events are raced over a variety of distances.

With this Special Issue, we aim to bring together a series of OWS-specific papers. Papers that tackle OWS-related issues for elite athletes, and papers relevant to the increasing number of age group athletes that participate in triathlon and other ultra-endurance swimming events, are both encouraged. Submissions on OWS-related training, optimal nutritional strategies, wetsuit use, pacing, and medical issues—including those related to the difficulties of swimming in different water temperatures—are particularly welcome.

Dr. Maria Francesca Piacentini
Dr. Veronica Vleck
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • open water swimming
  • triathlon swimming
  • water temperature
  • wetsuits
  • medical issues
  • training
  • pacing

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 518 KiB  
Article
Psychophysiological Effects of Slow-Paced Breathing on Adolescent Swimmers’ Subjective Performance, Recovery States, and Control Perception
by Quentin Merlin, Philippe Vacher, Laurent Mourot, Guillaume Levillain, Guillaume Martinent and Michel Nicolas
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2024, 9(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9010023 - 25 Jan 2024
Viewed by 2422
Abstract
This study examined the effect of a Slow-Paced Breath (i.e., 6 breaths per minute) without Biofeedback (SPB-NoHRVB) protocol on semi-elite adolescent swimmers’ psychological and physiological states during a seven-week ecological training period. A linear mixed-effects multilevel regression analysis approach was used with 13 [...] Read more.
This study examined the effect of a Slow-Paced Breath (i.e., 6 breaths per minute) without Biofeedback (SPB-NoHRVB) protocol on semi-elite adolescent swimmers’ psychological and physiological states during a seven-week ecological training period. A linear mixed-effects multilevel regression analysis approach was used with 13 adolescent national-level swimmers. Athletes were randomly assigned to an intervention group (n = 7) and a control group (n = 6). Seven waves of assessments were completed weekly during a seven-week training preparation in ecological conditions. During the protocol, swimmers completed subjective quantitative measures (RESTQ-36-R-Sport; cognitive perceived stress and control states about the training process, training subjective performance, and subjective internal training load) and physiological heart rate (HR) (HR of exercise, absolute and normalized HR recovery during the first 60 s of recovery; HRR60 and nHRR60) and heart rate variability (HRV) (MeanRR, RMSSD, LFnu and HFnu, LF/HF ration) tests (through a submaximal heart rate (5′-5′ test) once a week. Results revealed that the SPB-NoHRVB protocol significantly predicts biopsychosocial recovery states, cognitive perception of control, and training subjective performance (i.e., a significant effect of the SPB-NoHRVB protocol with the dependent variables simple time trajectories). However, no significant effects were found for biopsychosocial stress scales, cognitively perceived stress, HR, or HRV markers. Our results suggest that SPB-NoHRVB induces simple evolutions over time for crucial variables in athletes’ adaptation to the training process (i.e., cognitive appraisals and biopsychosocial states). In contrast, it highlights that SPB-NoHRVB does not induce better stress states. This specific effect on the resource component is an exciting result that will be discussed in the manuscript. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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11 pages, 617 KiB  
Article
Does Pool Performance of Elite Triathletes Predict Open-Water Performance?
by Sergio Sellés-Pérez, Roberto Cejuela, José Fernández-Sáez and Héctor Arévalo-Chico
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2023, 8(4), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk8040165 - 6 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2592
Abstract
The capacity of laboratory tests to predict competition performance has been broadly researched across several endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse how pool swimming performance can predict the result of the swimming segment in triathlon competitions and compare [...] Read more.
The capacity of laboratory tests to predict competition performance has been broadly researched across several endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse how pool swimming performance can predict the result of the swimming segment in triathlon competitions and compare predictability differences based on competition level and distance. Eighteen male triathletes participated in the study. Three were ranked world-class, ten elite/international level, and five highly trained/national level. A total of sixty-one graded multi-stage swimming tests were conducted. Blood lactate was measured to calculate the following hypothetical predictor variables: speed at lactate threshold 1 (LT1), speed at lactate threshold 2 (LT2), and speed in the last repetition of the test (SL200). The following data were collected for a total of 75 races: time in the swimming leg (TSL); position after the swimming leg (PSL); time difference with the first triathlete after the swimming leg (DFT); and final race position. The race levels were divided according to participant levels as follows: world series (WS) (n = 22); World Cup (WC) (n = 22); Continental Cup (CC) (n = 19); national championship (N) (n = 5); and local race (L) (n = 5). Based on distance, they were divided into Olympic distance (OD) (n = 37) and sprint distance (SD) (n = 38). A moderate to strong positive association was found between LT1, LT2, SL200 and PSL and TSl at all race levels except for the SD CC, SD WC, and OD CC races, where no or weak-to-moderate correlations were found. The present study demonstrated that performance measured in a graded multi-stage pool lactate test can predict performance in a triathlon swimming segment. This finding is highly useful for coaches as it can help them to obtain a reliable measure of the triathlete’s specific capabilities in the swimming leg. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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10 pages, 1170 KiB  
Article
Dry-Land Force–Velocity, Power–Velocity, and Swimming-Specific Force Relation to Single and Repeated Sprint Swimming Performance
by Ioannis Chalkiadakis, Gavriil G. Arsoniadis and Argyris G. Toubekis
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2023, 8(3), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk8030120 - 16 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2064
Abstract
The aim of this study was to identify the relationship between dry-land and in-water strength with performance and kinematic variables in short-distance, middle-distance, and repeated sprint swimming. Fifteen competitive swimmers applied a bench press exercise to measure maximum strength (MS), maximum power (P), [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to identify the relationship between dry-land and in-water strength with performance and kinematic variables in short-distance, middle-distance, and repeated sprint swimming. Fifteen competitive swimmers applied a bench press exercise to measure maximum strength (MS), maximum power (P), strength corresponding to P (F@P), maximum velocity (MV), and velocity corresponding to P (V@P) using F–V and P–V relationships. On a following day, swimmers performed a 10 s tethered swimming sprint (TF), and impulse was measured (IMP). On three separate days, swimmers performed (i) 50 and 100 m, (ii) 200 and 400 m, and (iii) 4 × 50 m front crawl sprint tests. Performance time (T), arm stroke rate (SR), arm stroke length (SL), and arm stroke index (SI) were calculated in all tests. Performance in short- and middle-distance tests and in 4 × 50 m training sets were related to dry-land MS, P, TF, and IMP (r = 0.51–0.83; p < 0.05). MS, P, and TF were related to SR in 50 m and SI in 50 and 100 m (r = 0.55–0.71; p < 0.05). A combination of dry-land P and in-water TF variables explains 80% of the 50 m performance time variation. Bench press power and tethered swimming force correlate with performance in short- and middle-distance tests and repeated sprint swimming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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11 pages, 1352 KiB  
Article
Association between the Upper Quarter Dynamic Balance, Anthropometrics, Kinematics, and Swimming Speed
by Raul F. Bartolomeu, Tatiana Sampaio, João P. Oliveira, Tiago M. Barbosa and Jorge E. Morais
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2023, 8(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk8030096 - 10 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1472
Abstract
Besides recurrently assessed water-based parameters, there are also some individual characteristics that affect swimming performance that are not water related. In the past few years, dynamic balance has been associated with land sports performance. Conversely, evidence on this topic in swimming is scarce. [...] Read more.
Besides recurrently assessed water-based parameters, there are also some individual characteristics that affect swimming performance that are not water related. In the past few years, dynamic balance has been associated with land sports performance. Conversely, evidence on this topic in swimming is scarce. The purpose of this study was to assess the association between on-land dynamic balance and swimming performance. Sixteen young adults and recreational swimmers were recruited for the present study (8 males 20.8 ± 2.0 years, and 8 females 20.1 ± 1.9 years). A set of anthropometric features were measured. The upper quarter Y-balance test was selected as a dynamic balance outcome, and swimming speed as the swimming performance indicator. The results showed a moderate and positive correlation between dynamic balance and swimming performance (p < 0.05). Speed fluctuation was highly and negatively related to swimming speed (p < 0.001), i.e., swimmers who had higher scores in the dynamic balance were more likely to deliver better performances. This suggests that in recreational swimmers, the stability and mobility of the upper extremity had a greater influence on swimming performance. Therefore, swimming instructors are advised to include dynamic balance exercises in their land-based training sessions to improve their swimmers’ performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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10 pages, 916 KiB  
Article
Delayed Effect of Dry-Land Strength Training Sessions on Swimming Performance
by Alexandros Tsoltos, Gavriil Arsoniadis, Charilaos Tsolakis, Panagiotis Koulouvaris, Theocharis Simeonidis, Alexandros Chatzigiannakis and Argyris Toubekis
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2023, 8(3), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk8030087 - 22 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1936
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of dry-land strength endurance (SE) and maximum strength (MS) sessions on next-day swimming performance. Eight swimmers (age: 18.6 ± 2.9 years) performed evening training sessions (19:00–19:40), including: (i) SE (2 × 15 − [...] Read more.
The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of dry-land strength endurance (SE) and maximum strength (MS) sessions on next-day swimming performance. Eight swimmers (age: 18.6 ± 2.9 years) performed evening training sessions (19:00–19:40), including: (i) SE (2 × 15 − 20 repetitions, 50% of 1-RM), (ii) MS (2 × 5 repetitions, 90% of 1-RM), (iii) control (CON: no dry-land training). All sessions were followed by a 90-min swimming training (20:00–21:30). Medicine ball throw and countermovement jump, free countermovement jump and squat jump were evaluated before and after the dry-land training session and 12 h later, before a 100-m front crawl sprint (next day at 8:30 a.m.). Performance time, RPE, blood lactate and biomechanical variables in 100-m sprint were no different between conditions (time, MS: 64.70 ± 7.35, SE: 63.81 ± 7.29, CON: 64.52 ± 7.71 s, p > 0.05). Jump height was not changed before and after dry-land and before the 100-m sprint in all conditions (p > 0.05). Medicine ball throw was lower in MS compared to CON before the 100-m sprint (MS: 4.44 ± 1.11, vs. CON: 4.66 ± 1.21 m, p < 0.05). Upper-body but not lower- body muscle function may be affected by MS training. However, performance in a 100-m test is not affected by dry-land training performed 12 h earlier. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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9 pages, 1218 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Post-Activation Potentiation on Swimming Starts in Adolescent Swimmers
by Nikolaos Georgogiannis and George Tsalis
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2023, 8(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk8020054 - 4 May 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1875
Abstract
Background: Post-activation potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon in which there is an increase in induced momentum in sporting activities after muscle contractions. In swimming, the start of the race and the increase in speed in its first few meters are important. The aim [...] Read more.
Background: Post-activation potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon in which there is an increase in induced momentum in sporting activities after muscle contractions. In swimming, the start of the race and the increase in speed in its first few meters are important. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of the PAP protocol, which included a simulated body weight start on the ground, on the swimming start and on the 25 m freestyle performance. Methods: The study included 14 male and 14 female swimmers, 14.9 ± 0.6 years old. All the swimmers performed three maximal attempts of 25 m freestyle swimming from the starting block on three different days in a randomly counterbalanced order. In each session, swimmers performed either a 25 m freestyle without any intervention before the swimming trial (CG), or performed four vertical simulated ground starts at maximal effort, 15 s before (15 sG) or 8 min before (8 minG) the swimming trial. The jump height, entry distance, flight time, and flight speed for each attempt were calculated. Results: The CG entry distance was significantly longer than that of the 15 sG and 8 minG (3.39 ± 0.20 vs. 3.31 ± 0.21 and 3.25 ± 0.25 m, respectively, p < 0.001). Conclusions: Four simulated swim starts on the ground, 15 s or 8 min before the swim sprint, had no positive effect on the swim start or swim performance, and it is up to the swimmer to perform these jumps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Open Water Swimming—Characteristics and Challenges)
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