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Fungal Pigments 2021
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Fungal Pigments 2021

A special issue of Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X). This special issue belongs to the section "Fungal Cell Biology, Metabolism and Physiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2021) | Viewed by 53298

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Laurent Dufossé

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Laboratoire de Chimie des Substances Naturelles et des Sciences des Aliments, ESIROI Département Agroalimentaire, Université de La Réunion, 2 rue Joseph Wetzell, F‐97490 Sainte‐Clotilde, La Réunion, France
Interests: sustainable textile; microbial biotechnology; microbial production of pigments and colorants; fermentation; bioprocess engineering and fermentation technology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Following the previous Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X) Fungal Pigments Special Issue edited and published in 2017, with 10 papers and the Fungal Pigments printed edition of 134 pages, the time has come to open a new edition entitled Fungal Pigments 2021 which will present the latest scientific advances in this field.

With the impact of globalization in research trends, the search for healthier lifestyles, the increasing public demand for natural, organic, and ‘clean labelled’ products, as well as the growing global market for natural colorants in economically fast-growing countries all over the world, filamentous fungi started to be investigated as readily available sources of chemically diverse pigments and colorants. For all of these reasons, this Special Issue of the Journal of Fungi will highlight exciting findings, which may pave the way for alternative and/or additional biotechnological processes for industrial applications of fungal pigments and colorants. Research papers and reviews about fungal biodiversity from terrestrial and marine origins are welcome, bringing new elements about fungi as potential sources of well-known carotenoid pigments (e.g., beta-carotene, lycopene) and other specific pigmented polyketide molecules, such as Monascus and Monascus-like azaphilones, which are yet not known to be biosynthesized by any other organisms, like higher plants. These polyketide pigments also include promising, and unexplored hydroxy-anthraquinoid colorants from Ascomycetous species. The investigation of biosynthetic pathways of the carotenoids and polyketide-derivative colored molecules (i.e., azaphilones, hydroxyanthraquinones, and naphthoquinones) in pigment-producing fungal species could bring some articles. Contributions about alternative greener extraction processes of fungal colored compounds, along with current industrial applications, description of their limits, and further opportunities for the use of fungal pigments in beverage, food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, textile, and painting areas will also be part of this Special Issue.

Prof. Dr. Laurent Dufossé
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Fungi is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Filamentous fungi
  • Pigment
  • Colorant
  • Carotenoid
  • Polyketide
  • Azaphilone
  • Anthraquinone
  • Melanin
  • Sclerotiorin
  • Bikaverin
  • Azulene
  • Riboflavin
  • Naphthoquinone
  • Biodiversity

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 215 KiB  
Editorial
Fungal Pigments: More Insights from Colorful Fungi
by Laurent Dufossé
J. Fungi 2022, 8(10), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101109 - 20 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1365
Abstract
Following the previous Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X) Fungal Pigments Special Issue edited and published in 2017 (weblink https://www [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)

Research

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15 pages, 1292 KiB  
Article
Fungal Biomarkers Stability in Mars Regolith Analogues after Simulated Space and Mars-like Conditions
by Alessia Cassaro, Claudia Pacelli, Mickael Baqué, Jean-Pierre Paul de Vera, Ute Böttger, Lorenzo Botta, Raffaele Saladino, Elke Rabbow and Silvano Onofri
J. Fungi 2021, 7(10), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7100859 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2485
Abstract
The discovery of life on other planets and moons in our solar system is one of the most important challenges of this era. The second ExoMars mission will look for traces of extant or extinct life on Mars. The instruments on board the [...] Read more.
The discovery of life on other planets and moons in our solar system is one of the most important challenges of this era. The second ExoMars mission will look for traces of extant or extinct life on Mars. The instruments on board the rover will be able to reach samples with eventual biomarkers until 2 m of depth under the planet’s surface. This exploration capacity offers the best chance to detect biomarkers which would be mainly preserved compared to samples on the surface which are directly exposed to harmful environmental conditions. Starting with the studies of the endolithic meristematic black fungus Cryomyces antarcticus, which has proved its high resistance under extreme conditions, we analyzed the stability and the resistance of fungal biomarkers after exposure to simulated space and Mars-like conditions, with Raman and Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, two of the scientific payload instruments on board the rover. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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12 pages, 1219 KiB  
Article
Characterization of a Biofilm Bioreactor Designed for the Single-Step Production of Aerial Conidia and Oosporein by Beauveria bassiana PQ2
by Héctor Raziel Lara-Juache, José Guadalupe Ávila-Hernández, Luis Víctor Rodríguez-Durán, Mariela Ramona Michel, Jorge Enrique Wong-Paz, Diana Beatriz Muñiz-Márquez, Fabiola Veana, Mayra Aguilar-Zárate, Juan Alberto Ascacio-Valdés and Pedro Aguilar-Zárate
J. Fungi 2021, 7(8), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080582 - 21 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3715
Abstract
Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus that is used for the biological control of different agricultural pest insects. B. bassiana is traditionally cultivated in submerged fermentation and solid-state fermentation systems to obtain secondary metabolites with antifungal activity and infective spores. This work presents [...] Read more.
Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungus that is used for the biological control of different agricultural pest insects. B. bassiana is traditionally cultivated in submerged fermentation and solid-state fermentation systems to obtain secondary metabolites with antifungal activity and infective spores. This work presents the design and characterization of a new laboratory-scale biofilm bioreactor for the simultaneous production of oosporein and aerial conidia by B. bassiana PQ2. The reactor was built with materials available in a conventional laboratory. KLa was determined at different air flows (1.5–2.5 L/min) by two different methods in the liquid phase and in the exhaust gases. The obtained values showed that an air flow of 2.5 L/min is sufficient to ensure adequate aeration to produce aerial conidia and secondary metabolites by B. bassiana. Under the conditions studied, a concentration of 183 mg oosporein per liter and 1.24 × 109 spores per gram of support was obtained at 168 h of culture. These results indicate that the biofilm bioreactor represents a viable alternative for the production of products for biological control from B. bassiana. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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13 pages, 3033 KiB  
Article
Genomic Analysis and Assessment of Melanin Synthesis in Amorphotheca resinae KUC3009
by Jeong-Joo Oh, Young Jun Kim, Jee Young Kim, Sun Lul Kwon, Changsu Lee, Myeong-Eun Lee, Jung Woo Kim and Gyu-Hyeok Kim
J. Fungi 2021, 7(4), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7040289 - 12 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2800
Abstract
This study reports the draft genome of Amorphotheca resinae KUC30009, a fungal isolate with promising industrial-scale melanin production potential. The mechanisms for melanin or melanin-related pigment formation of this strain were examined through bioinformatic and biochemical strategies. The 30.11 Mb genome of A. [...] Read more.
This study reports the draft genome of Amorphotheca resinae KUC30009, a fungal isolate with promising industrial-scale melanin production potential. The mechanisms for melanin or melanin-related pigment formation of this strain were examined through bioinformatic and biochemical strategies. The 30.11 Mb genome of A. resinae contains 9638 predicted genes. Genomic-based discovery analyses identified 14 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) associated with secondary metabolite production. Moreover, genes encoding a specific type 1 polyketide synthase and 4-hydroxynaphthalene reductase were identified and predicted to produce intermediate metabolites of dihydroxy naphthalene (DHN)-melanin biosynthesis pathway, but not to DHN-melanin. These findings were further supported by the detection of increased flaviolin concentrations in mycelia and almost unchanged morphologies of the culture grown with tricyclazole. Apart from this, the formation of melanin in the culture filtrate appeared to depend on the laccase-like activity of multi-copper oxidases. Simultaneously, concentrations of nitrogen-containing sources decreased when the melanin formed in the media. Interestingly, melanin formation in the culture fluid was proportional to laccase-like activity. Based on these findings, we proposed novel strategies for the enhancement of melanin production in culture filtrates. Therefore, our study established a theoretical and methodological basis for synthesizing pigments from fungal isolates using genomic- and biochemical-based approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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15 pages, 2114 KiB  
Article
Preliminary Examination of the Toxicity of Spalting Fungal Pigments: A Comparison between Extraction Methods
by Badria H. Almurshidi, R.C. Van Court, Sarath M. Vega Gutierrez, Stacey Harper, Bryan Harper and Seri C. Robinson
J. Fungi 2021, 7(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7020155 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2812
Abstract
Spalting fungal pigments have shown potential in technologies ranging from green energy generation to natural colorants. However, their unknown toxicity has been a barrier to industrial adoption. In order to gain an understanding of the safety of the pigments, zebrafish embryos were exposed [...] Read more.
Spalting fungal pigments have shown potential in technologies ranging from green energy generation to natural colorants. However, their unknown toxicity has been a barrier to industrial adoption. In order to gain an understanding of the safety of the pigments, zebrafish embryos were exposed to multiple forms of liquid media and solvent-extracted pigments with concentrations of purified pigment ranging from 0 to 50 mM from Chlorociboria aeruginosa, Chlorociboria aeruginascens, and Scytalidium cuboideum. Purified xylindein from Chlorociboria sp. did not show toxicity at any tested concentration, while the red pigment dramada from S. cuboideum was only associated with significant toxicity above 23.2 uM. However, liquid cultures and pigment extracted into dichloromethane (DCM) showed toxicity, suggesting the co-production of bioactive secondary metabolites. Future research on purification and the bioavailability of the red dramada pigment will be important to identify appropriate use; however, purified forms of the blue-green pigment xylindein are likely safe for use across industries. This opens the door to the adoption of green technologies based on these pigments, with potential to replace synthetic colorants and less stable natural pigments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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5 pages, 1648 KiB  
Communication
Does Structural Color Exist in True Fungi?
by Juliet Brodie, Colin J. Ingham and Silvia Vignolini
J. Fungi 2021, 7(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7020141 - 16 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4394
Abstract
Structural color occurs by the interaction of light with regular structures and so generates colors by completely different optical mechanisms to dyes and pigments. Structural color is found throughout the tree of life but has not, to date, been reported in the fungi. [...] Read more.
Structural color occurs by the interaction of light with regular structures and so generates colors by completely different optical mechanisms to dyes and pigments. Structural color is found throughout the tree of life but has not, to date, been reported in the fungi. Here we give an overview of structural color across the tree of life and provide a brief guide aimed at stimulating the search for this phenomenon in fungi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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18 pages, 6754 KiB  
Article
Production of Bio-Based Pigments from Food Processing Industry By-Products (Apple, Pomegranate, Black Carrot, Red Beet Pulps) Using Aspergillus carbonarius
by Ezgi Bezirhan Arikan, Oltan Canli, Yanis Caro, Laurent Dufossé and Nadir Dizge
J. Fungi 2020, 6(4), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040240 - 22 Oct 2020
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5007
Abstract
Food processing industry by-products (apple, pomegranate, black carrot, and red beet pulps) were evaluated as raw materials in pigment production by the filamentous fungi Aspergillus carbonarius. The effect of fermentation conditions (solid and submerged-state), incubation period (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 d), [...] Read more.
Food processing industry by-products (apple, pomegranate, black carrot, and red beet pulps) were evaluated as raw materials in pigment production by the filamentous fungi Aspergillus carbonarius. The effect of fermentation conditions (solid and submerged-state), incubation period (3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 d), initial substrate pH (4.5, 5.5, 6.5, 7.5, and 8.5), and pulp particle size (<1.4, 1.4–2.0, 2–4, and >4 mm) on fungal pigment production were tested to optimize the conditions. Pigment extraction analysis carried out under solid-state fermentation conditions showed that the maximum pigment production was determined as 9.21 ± 0.59 absorbance unit at the corresponding wavelength per gram (AU/g) dry fermented mass (dfm) for pomegranate pulp (PP) by A. carbonarius for 5 d. Moreover, the highest pigment production was obtained as 61.84 ± 2.16 AU/g dfm as yellowish brown at initial pH 6.5 with < 1.4 mm of substrate particle size for 15-d incubation period. GC×GC-TOFMS results indicate that melanin could be one of the main products as a pigment. SEM images showed that melanin could localize on the conidia of A. carbonarius. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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Graphical abstract

17 pages, 1769 KiB  
Article
Seven New Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Xanthoquinodins from Jugulospora vestita
by Lulu Shao, Yasmina Marin-Felix, Frank Surup, Alberto M. Stchigel and Marc Stadler
J. Fungi 2020, 6(4), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040188 - 25 Sep 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4299
Abstract
During the course of a screening for novel biologically active secondary metabolites produced by the Sordariomycetes (Ascomycota, Fungi), the ex-type strain of Jugulospora vestita was found to produce seven novel xanthone-anthraquinone heterodimers, xanthoquinodin A11 (1) and xanthoquinodins B10–15 (2– [...] Read more.
During the course of a screening for novel biologically active secondary metabolites produced by the Sordariomycetes (Ascomycota, Fungi), the ex-type strain of Jugulospora vestita was found to produce seven novel xanthone-anthraquinone heterodimers, xanthoquinodin A11 (1) and xanthoquinodins B10–15 (2–7), together with the already known compound xanthoquinodin B4 (8). The structures of the xanthoquinodins were determined by analysis of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic and mass spectrometric data. Moreover, the absolute configurations of these metabolites were established by analysis of the 1H−1H coupling constants, nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) correlations, and Electronic Circular Dichroism (ECD) spectroscopic data. Antifungal and antibacterial activities as well as cytotoxicity of all compounds were tested. Xanthoquinodin B11 showed fungicidal activities against Mucor hiemalis [minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) 2.1 µg/mL], Rhodotorula glutinis (MIC 2.1 µg/mL), and Pichia anomala (MIC 8.3 µg/mL). All the compounds 1–8 displayed anti-Gram-positive bacteria activity (MIC 0.2–8.3 µg/mL). In addition, all these eight compounds showed cytotoxicity against KB 3.1, L929, A549, SK-OV-3, PC-3, A431, and MCF-7 mammalian cell lines. The six novel compounds (1–3, 5–7), together with xanthoquinodin B4, were also found in the screening of other strains belonging to Jugulospora rotula, revealing the potential chemotaxonomic significance of the compound class for the genus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

15 pages, 1758 KiB  
Review
Safety Evaluation of Fungal Pigments for Food Applications
by Rajendran Poorniammal, Somasundaram Prabhu, Laurent Dufossé and Jegatheesh Kannan
J. Fungi 2021, 7(9), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7090692 - 26 Aug 2021
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5895
Abstract
Pigments play a major role in many industries. Natural colors are usually much safer when compared to synthetic colors and may even possess some medicinal benefits. Synthetic colors are economical and can easily be produced compared to natural colors. In addition, raw plant [...] Read more.
Pigments play a major role in many industries. Natural colors are usually much safer when compared to synthetic colors and may even possess some medicinal benefits. Synthetic colors are economical and can easily be produced compared to natural colors. In addition, raw plant materials for natural colors are limited and season dependent. Microorganisms provide an alternative source for natural colors and, among them, fungi provide a wide range of natural colorants that could easily be produced cheaply and with high yield. Along with pigment, some microbial strains are also capable of producing a number of mycotoxins. The commercial use of microbial pigments relies on the safety of colorants. This review provides a toxicity evaluation of pigments from fungal origins for food application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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29 pages, 4757 KiB  
Review
Recent Findings in Azaphilone Pigments
by Lúcia P. S. Pimenta, Dhionne C. Gomes, Patrícia G. Cardoso and Jacqueline A. Takahashi
J. Fungi 2021, 7(7), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7070541 - 7 Jul 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4696
Abstract
Filamentous fungi are known to biosynthesize an extraordinary range of azaphilones pigments with structural diversity and advantages over vegetal-derived colored natural products such agile and simple cultivation in the lab, acceptance of low-cost substrates, speed yield improvement, and ease of downstream processing. Modern [...] Read more.
Filamentous fungi are known to biosynthesize an extraordinary range of azaphilones pigments with structural diversity and advantages over vegetal-derived colored natural products such agile and simple cultivation in the lab, acceptance of low-cost substrates, speed yield improvement, and ease of downstream processing. Modern genetic engineering allows industrial production, providing pigments with higher thermostability, water-solubility, and promising bioactivities combined with ecological functions. This review, covering the literature from 2020 onwards, focuses on the state-of-the-art of azaphilone dyes, the global market scenario, new compounds isolated in the period with respective biological activities, and biosynthetic pathways. Furthermore, we discussed the innovations of azaphilone cultivation and extraction techniques, as well as in yield improvement and scale-up. Potential applications in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and textile industries were also explored. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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11 pages, 12713 KiB  
Review
Fungal Melanins and Applications in Healthcare, Bioremediation and Industry
by Ellie Rose Mattoon, Radames J. B. Cordero and Arturo Casadevall
J. Fungi 2021, 7(6), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7060488 - 18 Jun 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 8326
Abstract
Melanin is a complex multifunctional pigment found in all kingdoms of life, including fungi. The complex chemical structure of fungal melanins, yet to be fully elucidated, lends them multiple unique functions ranging from radioprotection and antioxidant activity to heavy metal chelation and organic [...] Read more.
Melanin is a complex multifunctional pigment found in all kingdoms of life, including fungi. The complex chemical structure of fungal melanins, yet to be fully elucidated, lends them multiple unique functions ranging from radioprotection and antioxidant activity to heavy metal chelation and organic compound absorption. Given their many biological functions, fungal melanins present many possibilities as natural compounds that could be exploited for human use. This review summarizes the current discourse and attempts to apply fungal melanin to enhance human health, remove pollutants from ecosystems, and streamline industrial processes. While the potential applications of fungal melanins are often discussed in the scientific community, they are successfully executed less often. Some of the challenges in the applications of fungal melanin to technology include the knowledge gap about their detailed structure, difficulties in isolating melanotic fungi, challenges in extracting melanin from isolated species, and the pathogenicity concerns that accompany working with live melanotic fungi. With proper acknowledgment of these challenges, fungal melanin holds great potential for societal benefit in the coming years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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15 pages, 867 KiB  
Review
Molecular Characterization of Fungal Pigments
by Miriam S. Valenzuela-Gloria, Nagamani Balagurusamy, Mónica L. Chávez-González, Oscar Aguilar, Ayerim Hernández-Almanza and Cristóbal N. Aguilar
J. Fungi 2021, 7(5), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7050326 - 23 Apr 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4824
Abstract
The industrial application of pigments of biological origin has been gaining strength over time, which is mainly explained by the increased interest of the consumer for products with few synthetic additives. So, the search for biomolecules from natural origin has challenged food scientists [...] Read more.
The industrial application of pigments of biological origin has been gaining strength over time, which is mainly explained by the increased interest of the consumer for products with few synthetic additives. So, the search for biomolecules from natural origin has challenged food scientists and technologists to identify, develop efficient and less consuming strategies for extraction and characterization of biopigments. In this task, elucidation of molecular structure has become a fundamental requirement, since it is necessary to comply with compound regulatory submissions of industrial sectors such as food, pharmaceutical agrichemicals, and other new chemical entity registrations. Molecular elucidation consists of establishing the chemical structure of a molecule, which allows us to understand the interaction between the natural additive (colorant, flavor, antioxidant, etc) and its use (interaction with the rest of the mixture of compounds). Elucidation of molecular characteristics can be achieved through several techniques, the most common being infrared spectroscopy (IR), spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry (UV-VIS), nuclear-resonance spectroscopy (MAGNETIC MRI), and mass spectrometry. This review provides the details that aid for the molecular elucidation of pigments of fungal origin, for a viable and innocuous application of these biopigments by various industries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pigments 2021)
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