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A special issue of Machines (ISSN 2075-1702). This special issue belongs to the section "Robotics, Mechatronics and Intelligent Machines".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2024) | Viewed by 27725

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Octavio Garcia-Salazar

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Guest Editor

Aerospace Engineering Research and Innovation Center, Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon, Apodaca, Mexico
Interests: UAS; UAVs; drones; flight dynamics; control theory; robotics

Dr. Anand Sanchez-Orta

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Guest Editor

Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing Division, CINVESTAV, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
Interests: UAVs; control; robotics

Dr. Aldo Jonathan Muñoz-Vazquez

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Guest Editor

Department of Multidisciplinay Engineering, Texas A&M University, 6200 Tres Lagos Blvd, Higher Education Center at McAllen, McAllen, TX 78504, USA
Interests: fractional calculus; nonlinear systems; robotics; fuzzy logics; neural networks; control theory; integral equations
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the last decade, one of the most investigated fields in engineering is the study of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), whose community is focused on design, development, guidance, navigation, control, formation flight, and innovative non-conventional configurations. These topics have been developing constantly due to their incredible potential in military and civil applications, such as recognition, natural disasters, inspection, mining, precision agriculture, vigilance, and emergency aid, which require UAVs that can evolve in a stable form and adapt to the environment of operation. In this sense, most applications require robust strategies and algorithms, as well as innovative UAV designs and multiple UAVs to ensure mission success.

The objective of this Special Issue is to address the recent advances and applications in unmanned aerial vehicles, considering both theory and experiments for fixed-wing, multirotor, and non-conventional (convertible) vehicles. Manuscripts related but not limited to virtual simulations, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), wind tunnel testing, and ground testing of UAVs are welcome. We invite researchers and engineers to contribute their original unpublished works, focusing on (but not limited to) the topics listed below:

Modeling and simulation
Design and development
Guidance, navigation, and control (GNC)
Formation flight and coordination of multiple UAVs
Path planning
Sensing and avoiding algorithms
Artificial intelligence for UAVs
Convertible UAVs (non-conventional configurations)
Real-time autopilots and embedded control for UAVs
Real-time applications: agriculture, infrastructure and mining

Dr. Octavio Garcia-Salazar
Dr. Anand Sanchez-Orta
Dr. Aldo Jonathan Muñoz-Vazquez
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Machines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

30 pages, 23730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Performance of a Novel Tapered Wing Tiltrotor UAV for Hover and Cruise Missions

by Edgar Ulises Rojo-Rodriguez, Erik Gilberto Rojo-Rodriguez, Sergio A. Araujo-Estrada and Octavio Garcia-Salazar

Machines 2024, 12(9), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12090653 - 18 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1431

Abstract

This research focuses on a novel convertible unmanned aerial vehicle (CUAV) featuring four rotors with tilting capabilities combined with a tapered form. This paper studies the transition motion between multirotor and fixed-wing modes based on the mechanical and aerodynamics design as well as the control strategy. The proposed CUAV involves information about design, manufacturing, operation, modeling, control strategy, and real-time experiments. The CUAV design considers a fixed-wing with tiltrotors and provides the maneuverability to perform take-off, hover flight, cruise flight, and landing, having the characteristics of a helicopter in hover flight and an aircraft in horizontal flight. The manufacturing is based on additive manufacturing, which facilitates the creation of a lattice structure within the wing. The modeling is obtained using the Newton–Euler equations, and the control strategy is a PID controller based on a geometric approach on SE(3). Finally, the real-time experiments validate the proposed design for the complete regime of flight, and the research meticulously evaluates the feasibility of the prototype and its potential to significantly enhance the mission versatility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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13 pages, 1723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Coupled Wing Morphing of Ornithopters Improves Attitude Control and Agile Flight

by Yu Cai, Guangfa Su, Jiannan Zhao and Shuang Feng

Machines 2024, 12(7), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12070486 - 19 Jul 2024

Viewed by 964

Abstract

Bird wings are exquisite mechanisms integrated with multiple morphological deformation joints. The larger avian species are particularly adept at utilizing their wings’ flapping, folding, and twisting motions to control the wing angle and area. These motions mainly involve different types of spanwise folding and chordwise twisting. It is wondered whether the agile maneuverability of birds is based on the complex coupling of these wing morphing changes. To investigate this issue, we designed a two-section wing structure ornithopter capable of simultaneously controlling both spanwise folding and chordwise twisting and applied it to research on heading control. The experimental data collected from outdoor flights describe the differing flight capabilities between the conventional and two-section active twist wing states, indicating that incorporating an active twist structure enhances the agility and maneuverability of this novel flapping aircraft. In the experiments on yaw control, we observed some peculiar phenomena: although the twisting motion of the active twist ornithopter wings resembles that of a fixed-wing aileron control, due to the intricate coupling of the wing flapping and folding, the ornithopter, under the control of active twist structures, exhibited a yaw direction opposite to the expected direction (directly applying the logic assumed by the fixed-wing aileron control). Addressing this specific phenomenon, we provide a plausible model explanation. In summary, our study with active twist mechanisms on ornithopters corroborates the positive impact of active deformation on their attitude agility, which is beneficial for the design of similar bio-inspired aircraft in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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24 pages, 1506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved PVTOL Test Bench for the Study of Over-Actuated Tilt-Rotor Propulsion Systems

by Luis Amezquita-Brooks, Eber Maciel-Martínez and Diana Hernandez-Alcantara

Machines 2024, 12(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12010046 - 10 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1338

Abstract

In recent years, applications exploiting the advantages of tilt-rotors and other vectored thrust propulsion systems have become widespread, particularly in many novel Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) configurations. These propulsion systems can provide additional control authority, enabling more complex flight modes, but the resulting control systems can be challenging to design due to the mismatch between the vehicle degrees of freedom and physical input variables. These propulsion systems present both advantages and difficulties because they can exert the same overall forces and moments in many different propulsive configurations. This leads to the traditional non-uniqueness problem when using the inverse dynamics control allocation approach, which is the basis of many popular VTOL control algorithms. In this article, a modified Planar VTOL (PVTOL) test bench configuration, which considers an arbitrary number of co-linear tilting rotors, is introduced as a benchmark for the study of the control allocation problem. The resulting propulsion system is then modeled and linearized in a closed and compact form. This allows a simple and systematic derivation of many of the currently used control allocation approaches. According to the proposed PVTOL configuration, a two-rotor test bench is implemented experimentally and a decoupling control allocation strategy based on Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) analysis is developed. The proposed approach is compared with a traditional input mixer algorithm based on physical intuition. The results show that the SVD-based solution achieves better cross-coupling reduction and preserves the main properties of the physically derived approach. Finally, it is shown that the proposed PVTOL configuration is effective for studying the control allocation problem experimentally in a controlled environment and could serve as a benchmark for comparing different approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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16 pages, 4835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Conceptual Framework for Economic Analysis of Different Law Enforcement Drones

by Nikolaos Tsiamis, Loukia Efthymiou and Konstantinos P. Tsagarakis

Machines 2023, 11(11), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11110983 - 24 Oct 2023

Viewed by 2535

Abstract

The widespread use of drones in various fields has initiated a discussion on their cost-effectiveness and economic impact. This article analyzes in detail a methodological evaluation framework for the levelized cost of drone services for law enforcement purposes. Based on the data availability, we compared two vehicles: Phantom 4 Pro and Thunder-B. Moreover, we calculated their levelized costs per surveillance time and trip distance. Our approach helps users calculate the real costs of their vehicles’ services and produce equations for rapid estimations. We observed economies of scale for time and distance and showed differentiations per aircraft capacity. Furthermore, using the produced equations, we formulated a case study and compared the costs in a 4 km area constantly monitored by the two types of drones to support the best vehicle selection. We found that the Phantom 4 Pro costs less than the Thunder-B drone, for example. Thus, we demonstrate how, by applying this methodology beforehand, decision makers can select the most appropriate vehicle for their needs based on cost. Cost research estimations will improve UAV use and will help policymakers include UAV technology in crime prevention programs, especially when more data are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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23 pages, 7275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variations in Finite-Time Multi-Surface Sliding Mode Control for Multirotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Payload Delivery with Pendulum Swinging Effects

by Clevon Peris, Michael Norton and Sui Yang Khoo

Machines 2023, 11(9), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11090899 - 10 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1187

Abstract

Multi-surface sliding mode control addresses the limitations of traditional sliding mode control by employing multiple sliding surfaces to handle uncertainties, disturbances, and nonlinearities. The design process involves developing sliding surfaces, designing switching logic, and deriving control laws for each surface. In this paper, first, a robust finite-time multi-surface sliding mode controller will be presented and its performance analyzed by applying it to a multirotor subjected to a suspended payload, modeled in the form of a single pendulum, itself defined as a spatial (3D) dynamic model. Next, an adaptive finite-time multi-surface sliding mode controller will be derived—adding a variable adaptive parameter to the existing sliding surfaces of the robust finite-time control—and applied to the same system. It will be shown that the adaptive controller, with an adaptive parameter that adjusts itself based on the present value of the multi-surface sliding mode parameter, creates an improved fast finite-time convergence by obtaining an optimal settling time and minimizing undershoot of the multirotor state vector. Empirical verification of the effectiveness of the adaptive control will be carried out by presenting the control performances against a step response. It is also shown that the control may be utilized to approximate external disturbances—represented by the pendulum—and that with the application of control, the vehicle’s motion may be stabilized and the payload swing suppressed. Lyapunov stability theory-based stability proofs for the controllers’ designs are developed, showing the asymptotic stability of the output and uniform boundedness of the errors in the system dynamics. It is verified that the multi-surface sliding mode control can account for system uncertainties—both matched and mismatched—in addition to changes in internal dynamics and disturbances to the system, where the single pendulum payload is representative of the changes in dynamics that may occur to the system. Numerical simulations and characteristics are presented to validate the performance of the controllers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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27 pages, 11472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evaluation of an H-VTOL Aircraft with Distributed Electric Propulsion and Ducted-Fans Using MIL Simulation

by Juan Manuel Bustamante Alarcon, José Leonel Sánchez Marmolejo, Luis Héctor Manjarrez Muñoz, Eduardo Steed Espinoza Quesada, Antonio Osorio Cordero and Luis Rodolfo García Carrillo

Machines 2023, 11(9), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11090852 - 25 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1881

Abstract

This paper deals with the problem of increasing the energy efficiency of a hybrid vertical take-off and landing aircraft. To this end, an innovative aerial vehicle was developed, featuring a distributed electrical propulsion system with ducted-fan rotors. To compare and analyze the effectiveness of the proposed propulsion system, two configurations with a different number of ducted-fan rotors were examined: a four-rotor configuration and a six-rotor configuration. The mathematical model of the four-rotor configuration was derived using the Newton–Euler formalism, allowing the design and implementation of a control strategy for conducting model-in-the-loop simulations. These simulations enabled the evaluation and analysis of the performance of the proposed propulsion system, where the numerical results demonstrated the functionality of both designs and showed that, during the multirotor flight, the configuration with six rotors increased its energy efficiency by up to 11%, providing higher vertical lift with the same power consumption. This was achieved by distributing its weight among a higher number of engines. The incorporation of two additional ducted fans increased the weight and the drag of the six-rotor configuration, resulting in a low augmentation in power consumption of 1%. Finally, this caused a decrease in airspeed by up to 4% during the cruise speed phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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16 pages, 6129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Inverse Kinematics Approach for the Analysis and Active Control of a Four-UPR Motion-Compensated Platform for UAV–ASV Cooperation

by Pedro Pereira, Raul Campilho and Andry Pinto

Machines 2023, 11(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11040478 - 14 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2511

Abstract

In the present day, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology is being used for a multitude of inspection operations, including those in offshore structures such as wind-farms. Due to the distance of these structures to the coast, drones need to be carried to these structures via ship. To achieve a completely autonomous operation, the UAV can greatly benefit from an autonomous surface vehicle (ASV) to transport the UAV to the operation location and coordinate a successful landing between the two. This work presents the concept of a four-link parallel platform to perform wave-motion synchronization to facilitate UAV landings. The parallel platform consists of two base floaters connected with rigid rods, linked by linear actuators to a top mobile platform for the landing of a UAV. Using an inverse kinematics approach, a study of the position of the cylinders for greater range of motion and a workspace analysis is achieved. The platform makes use of a feedback controller to reduce the total motion of the landing platform. Using the robotic operating system (ROS) and Gazebo to emulate wave motions and represent the physical model and actuator system, the platform control system was successfully validated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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30 pages, 11343 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Viability of a Grid of Autonomous Ground-Tethered UAV Platforms in Agricultural Pest Bird Control

by Joshua Trethowan, Zihao Wang and K. C. Wong

Machines 2023, 11(3), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11030377 - 11 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2262

Abstract

Pest birds are a salient problem in agriculture all around the world due to the damage they can cause to commercial or high-value crops. Recent advancements in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) have motivated the use of drones in pest bird deterrence, with promising success already being demonstrated over traditional bird control techniques. This paper presents a novel bird deterrence solution in the form of tethered UAVs, which are attached and arranged in a grid-like fashion across a vineyard property. This strategy aims to bypass the power and endurance limitations of untethered drones while still utilising their dynamism and scaring potential. A simulation model has been designed and developed to assess the feasibility of different UAV arrangements, configurations, and strategies against expected behavioural responses of incoming bird flocks, despite operational and spatial constraints imposed by a tether. Attempts at quantifying bird persistence and relative effort following UAV-induced deterrence are also introduced through a novel bird energy expenditure model. This aims to serve as a proxy for selecting control techniques that reduce future foraging missions. The simulation model successfully isolated candidate configurations, which were able to deter both single and multiple incoming bird flocks using a centralised multi-UAV control strategy. Overall, this study indicates that a grid of autonomous ground-tethered UAV platforms is viable as a bird deterrence solution in agriculture, a novel solution not seen nor dealt with elsewhere to the authors’ knowledge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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19 pages, 8031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligent PIV Fuzzy Navigation and Attitude Controller for an Octorotor Mini-UAV

by Pablo A. Tellez-Belkotosky, Luis E. Cabriales-Ramirez, Manuel A. Gutierrez-Martinez and Edmundo Javier Ollervides-Vazquez

Machines 2023, 11(2), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11020266 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1451

Abstract

In this research, a proportional plus integral plus velocity (PIV) fuzzy gain scheduling flight controller for an octorotor mini-unmanned aerial vehicle is developed. The designed flight controller scheme, with a PIV term, is combined with a fuzzy gain scheduling approach. The tracking controller PIV fuzzy gain scheduling is based on two controllers connected in cascade with a saturation approach. The Newton–Euler equations of motion are applied to obtain a mathematical model for the octorotor mini-unmanned aerial vehicle (mini-UAV). The flight controller approach is applied to obtain coupling moments and forces with interconnected attitude and navigation tracking trajectory. In the design of a flight navigation controller with two layers, the inner layer consists of a PIV fuzzy gain scheduling controller that is applied to the attitude dynamics, obtaining the references for the coupling outer layer PIV fuzzy gain scheduling controller, which manipulates the translational dynamics. The navigation PIV fuzzy gain scheduling controller is saturated for bounding in translational forces to avoid large deviations of commands to Euler angles pitch and roll, and another saturated controller is implemented for the bounded thrust rotor to avoid the excessive angular speed of these rotors. The octorotor mini-UAV flight navigation simulation is performed to validate the tracking control of a sequence of motions in each axis, which is presented as a validation for the proposed control scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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14 pages, 1027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Q-Learning with the Variable Box Method: A Case Study to Land a Solid Rocket

by Alejandro Tevera-Ruiz, Rodolfo Garcia-Rodriguez, Vicente Parra-Vega and Luis Enrique Ramos-Velasco

Machines 2023, 11(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11020214 - 2 Feb 2023

Viewed by 2202

Abstract

Some critical tasks require refined actions near the target, for instance, steering a car in a crowded parking lot or landing a rocket. These tasks are critical because failure to comply with the constraints near the target may lead to a fatal (unrecoverable) condition. Thus, a higher resolution action is required near the target to increase maneuvering precision. Moreover, completing the task becomes more challenging if the environment changes or is uncertain. Therefore, novel approaches have been proposed for these problems. In particular, reinforcement learning schemes such as Q-learning have been suggested to learn from scratch, subject to exploring action–state causal relationships aimed at action decisions that lead to an increase in the reward. Q-learning refines iterative action inputs by exploring state spaces that maximize the reward. However, reducing the (constant) resolution box needed for critical tasks increases the computational load, which may lead to the tantamount curse of the dimensionality problem. This paper proposes a variable box method to maintain a low number of boxes but reduce its resolution only near the target to increase action resolution as needed. The proposal is applied to a critical task such as landing a solid rocket, whose dynamics are highly nonlinear, underactuated, non-affine, and subject to environmental disturbances. Simulations show successful landing without leading to a curse of dimensionality, typical of the classical (constant box) Q-learning scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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24 pages, 2943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Determination of Aerodynamic Coefficients of a Tail-Sitter Aircraft by Means of CFD Numerical Simulation

by Emmanuel Alejandro Islas-Narvaez, Jean Fulbert Ituna-Yudonago, Luis Enrique Ramos-Velasco, Mario Alejandro Vega-Navarrete and Octavio Garcia-Salazar

Machines 2023, 11(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11010017 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4230

Abstract

Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft have become important aerial vehicles for various sectors, such as security, health, and commercial sectors. These vehicles are capable of operating in different flight modes, allowing for the covering of most flight requirements in most environments. A tail-sitter aircraft is a type of VTOL vehicle that has the ability to take off and land vertically on it elevators (its tail) or on some rigid support element that extends behind the trailing edge. Most of the tail-sitter aircraft are designed with a fixed-wing adaptation rather than having their own design. The design of the tail-sitter carried out in this work had the particularity of not being an adaptation of a quad-rotor system in a commercial swept-wing aircraft, but, rather, was made from its own geometry in a twin-rotor configuration. The design was performed using ANSYS SpaceClaim CAD software, and a numerical analysis of the performance was carried out in ANSYS Fluent CFD software. The numerical results were satisfactorily validated with empirical correlations for the calculation of the polar curve, and the performance of the proposed tail-sitter was satisfactory compared to those found in the literature. The results of velocity and pressure contours were obtained for various angles of attack. The force and moment coefficients obtained showed trends similar to those reported in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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22 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Building a House Risk Index of Mosquito-Borne Viral Diseases

by Víctor Muñiz-Sánchez, Kenia Mayela Valdez-Delgado, Francisco J. Hernandez-Lopez, David A. Moo-Llanes, Graciela González-Farías and Rogelio Danis-Lozano

Machines 2022, 10(12), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10121161 - 4 Dec 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2865

Abstract

The Vector Control Program in Mexico has developed operational research strategies to identify entomological and sociodemographic parameters associated with dengue transmission in order to direct targeted actions and reduce transmission. However, these strategies have limitations in establishing their relationship with landscape analysis and dengue transmission. This study provides a proof of concept of the use of unmanned aerial vehicle technology as a possible way to collect spatial information of the landscape in real time through multispectral images for the generation of a multivariate predictive model that allows for the establishment of a risk index relating sociodemographic variables with the presence of the vector in its different larval, pupal, and adult stages. With flight times of less than 30 min, RGB orthomosaics were built, where houses, roads, highways, rivers, and trails are observed in detail, as well as in areas with a strong influence of vegetation, detailing the location of the roofs or the infrastructure of the house, grass, bushes, and trees of different dimensions, with a pixel resolution level of 5 centimeters. For the risk index, we developed a methodology based on partial least squares (PLS), which takes into account the different type of variables are involved and the geographic distribution of the houses as well. Results show the spatial pattern of downtown low-risk housing, which increases as we approach the outskirts of the town. The predictive model of dengue transmission risk developed through orthomosaics can help decision makers to plan control and public health activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles)

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