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Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling
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Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Metals and Alloys".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2024) | Viewed by 14984

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Adam Cwudziński

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Metallurgy and Metals Technology, Czestochowa University of Technology, Czestochowa, Poland
Interests: iron and steel extractive metallurgy; continuous casting; tundish metallurgy; physical and numerical modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Chao Chen

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
Interests: process modeling; clean steel; inclusions; CFD; physical model; tundish; ladle refining; stainless steel
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Metals continue to be a source of innovative engineering materials applicable to almost all industries. Iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, cobalt, titanium, etc. will continue to be essential components of key metallic alloys for a long time to come. Therefore, the development of metallurgical technologies creates space for the production of metallic alloys with new unique properties. In the production cycle of metal products, all technological stages require a strategic approach. Starting from pyro- or hydrometallurgical reduction processes, through smelting, refining, casting, plastic working, and chemical or heat treatment, the metals initially concentrated in the ore obtain unique features in the final product. Of course, in the era of the circular economy, the processes of recovering metals from secondary sources are of great importance. Currently, the results obtained from experiments on physical models or numerical simulations determine the scientific progress in the field of metallurgical technologies. Both research techniques complement each other and reliably reflect the industrial conditions.

Dr. Adam Cwudziński
Dr. Chao Chen
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • pyrometallurgy
  • hydrometallurgy
  • electrometallurgy
  • refining
  • casting
  • plastic working
  • additive metallurgy
  • thermochemical treatment
  • physical metallurgy
  • metal recycling
  • physical modelling
  • numerical modeling

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 3558 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Influence of Different Diameters of De Laval Supersonic Nozzles on the Key Splashing Parameters of Remaining Slag
by Viktor Sinelnikov, Dorota Kalisz, Jan Novosád, Piotr Czarnywojtek, Cezary Rapiejko, Piotr Niedzielski, Rafał Kaczorowski, Pavel Srb, Breno Totti Maia, Michal Petrů and Katarzyna Ewa Łoś (Buczkowska)
Materials 2024, 17(23), 5796; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17235796 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 195
Abstract
The paper is devoted to the analysis of a supersonic nozzle system effect in gas-cooled lances on the technological parameters of slag splashing in an oxygen converter. Simulation calculations were carried out, taking into account the parameters of nozzles used in the technological [...] Read more.
The paper is devoted to the analysis of a supersonic nozzle system effect in gas-cooled lances on the technological parameters of slag splashing in an oxygen converter. Simulation calculations were carried out, taking into account the parameters of nozzles used in the technological lines of converter steel plants in Ukraine and Brazil. The problems were solved in several stages. The simulation results of the first stage revealed the influence of different nozzle diameters dcr, dex and the inlet pressure before nozzle P0 on the nitrogen consumption of one nozzle Vн. Calculations also showed the influence of the critical dcrand output dex of the nozzle diameter and nitrogen flow through one nozzle Vн on the power of injected nitrogen N1 and the depth of penetration of the stream hx into the liquid slag. The second stage was dedicated to numerical simulation of the slag splashing process, including an array of results from the first stage. The thermodynamic and physical parameters were calculated using our own computer program, while 3D simulations were conducted using the ANSYS Fluent 2023 R2 program. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
17 pages, 5528 KiB  
Article
Effect of Pouring Techniques and Funnel Structures on Crucible Metallurgy: Physical and Numerical Simulations
by Wenwen Feng, Wenkang Yao, Lin Yuan, Ye Yuan, Yiming Li, Pu Wang and Jiaquan Zhang
Materials 2024, 17(19), 4920; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194920 - 8 Oct 2024
Viewed by 568
Abstract
In the planar flow casting process of amorphous strips, the flow behavior of molten metal and the inclusion content in the crucible are crucial to the morphology and magnetic properties of the material. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the effects of [...] Read more.
In the planar flow casting process of amorphous strips, the flow behavior of molten metal and the inclusion content in the crucible are crucial to the morphology and magnetic properties of the material. This study conducts a comparative analysis of the effects of non-immersed and immersed funnels, as well as various funnel structures, on the fluid flow and inclusion removal efficiency in the crucible by integrating numerical and physical models. The findings reveal that for the same pouring flow rate, the diameter of the liquid column in non-immersed pouring conditions is smaller than that of the funnel outlet, leading to a faster injection flow velocity. As a result, the melt in the crucible is subjected to severe impacts, accompanied by an increased possibility of slag entrapment. Conversely, immersed pouring substantially reduces the velocity of the molten metal at the funnel outlet, thereby extending the residence time in the crucible and diminishing the volume of the dead zone. Additionally, the molten metal backflows due to the negative pressure formed in the inner chamber of the funnel. The design of a trumpet-shaped funnel increases the effective volume while reducing the height of the backflow fluid, consequently reducing the velocity of the molten metal at the funnel outlet and prolonging the residence time. Compared to the conventional pouring process with the non-immersed funnel, the outlet velocity is reduced from 1.1 m/s to 0.12 m/s by adopting the immersed funnel with an inverted trapezoidal trumpet structure. This reduction results in a stable flow state, a 9.69% reduction in the dead zone volume fraction, and a 22.96% increase in average inclusion removal efficiency. These improvements demonstrate that a crucible funnel with a well-designed structure and the implementation of an immersion process can significantly improve the metallurgical effects in the planar flow casting process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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17 pages, 13170 KiB  
Article
Continuous Casting Slab Mold: Key Role of Nozzle Immersion Depth
by Liang Chen, Xiqing Chen, Pu Wang and Jiaquan Zhang
Materials 2024, 17(19), 4888; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194888 - 5 Oct 2024
Viewed by 575
Abstract
Based on a physical water model with a scaling factor of 0.5 and a coupled flow–heat transfer–solidification numerical model, this study investigates the influence of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) depth on the mold surface behavior, slag entrapment, internal flow field, temperature distribution, [...] Read more.
Based on a physical water model with a scaling factor of 0.5 and a coupled flow–heat transfer–solidification numerical model, this study investigates the influence of the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) depth on the mold surface behavior, slag entrapment, internal flow field, temperature distribution, and initial solidification behavior in slab casting. The results indicate that when the SEN depth is too shallow (80 mm), the slag layer on the narrow face is thin, leading to slag entrapment. Within a certain range of SEN depths (less than 170 mm), increasing the SEN depth reduces the impact on the mold walls, shortening the “plateau period” of stagnated growth on the narrow face shell. This allows the upper recirculation flow to develop more fully, resulting in an increase in the surface flow velocity and an expansion in the high-temperature region near the meniscus, which promotes uniform slag melting but also heightens the risk of slag entrainment due to shear stress at the liquid surface (with 110 mm being the most stable condition). As the SEN depth continues to increase, the surface flow velocity gradually decreases, and the maximum fluctuation in the liquid surface diminishes, while the full development of the upper recirculation zone leads to a higher and more uniform meniscus temperature. This suggests that in practical production, it is advisable to avoid this critical SEN depth. Instead, the immersion depth should be controlled at a slightly shallower position (around 110 mm) or a deeper position (around 190 mm). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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22 pages, 4471 KiB  
Article
Waste for Product—Synthesis and Electrocatalytic Properties of Palladium Nanopyramid Layer Enriched with PtNPs
by Magdalena Luty-Błocho, Adrianna Pach, Dawid Kutyła, Anna Kula, Stanisław Małecki, Piotr Jeleń and Volker Hessel
Materials 2024, 17(16), 4165; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164165 - 22 Aug 2024
Viewed by 731
Abstract
The presented research is the seed of a vision for the development of a waste-for-product strategy. Following this concept, various synthetic solutions containing low concentrations of platinum group metals were used to model their recovery and to produce catalysts. This is also the [...] Read more.
The presented research is the seed of a vision for the development of a waste-for-product strategy. Following this concept, various synthetic solutions containing low concentrations of platinum group metals were used to model their recovery and to produce catalysts. This is also the first report that shows the method for synthesis of a pyramid-like structure deposited on activated carbon composed of Pd and Pt. This unique structure was obtained from a mixture of highly diluted aqueous solutions containing both metals and chloride ions. The presence of functional groups on the carbon surface and experimental conditions allowed for: the adsorption of metal complexes, their reduction to metal atoms and enabled further hierarchical growth of the metal layer on the carbon surface. During experiments, spherical palladium and platinum nanoparticles were obtained. The addition of chloride ions to the solution promoted the hierarchical growth and formation of palladium nanopyramids, which were enriched with platinum nanoparticles. The obtained materials were characterized using UV–Vis, Raman, IR spectroscopy, TGA, SEM/EDS, and XRD techniques. Moreover, Pd@ROY, Pt@ROY, and Pd-Pt@ROY were tested as possible electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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26 pages, 11540 KiB  
Article
Physical Model of Inclusions Removal at Static Steel–Slag Interface
by Xin Tao, Jianqi Cao, Jia Wang, Xiaonai He, Lingyu Meng, Yongbo Guo, Tao Wang, Dongliang Li, Jinping Fan and Chao Chen
Materials 2024, 17(10), 2244; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17102244 - 10 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 853
Abstract
Inclusions are one of the important factors affecting the cleanliness of molten steel. The current optimization of inclusion removal methods mainly focuses on promoting inclusions to float to the slag–steel interface so that the inclusions can be absorbed and removed by the refining [...] Read more.
Inclusions are one of the important factors affecting the cleanliness of molten steel. The current optimization of inclusion removal methods mainly focuses on promoting inclusions to float to the slag–steel interface so that the inclusions can be absorbed and removed by the refining slag. However, the research on the floating removal of inclusions cannot be carried out directly in the ladle, so methods such as mathematical models and physical models were developed. This article uses silicone oil to simulate the slag layer; polypropylene particles; and aluminum oxide particles to simulate inclusions to establish a water model experiment. By changing the viscosity of silicone oil and the diameter of particles, the factors affecting the movement of inclusions at the slag–steel interface were explored. Based on the water model, a mathematical model of the floating behavior of inclusions at the slag–steel interface was constructed, and parameters such as particle diameter and interfacial tension in the water model experiment were studied by the mathematical model for calculation. Both the mathematical model and the water model experimental results show that after the viscosity of silicone oil increases from 0.048 Pa·s to 0.096 Pa·s, the dimensionless displacement and terminal velocity of the particles decreases. When the diameter of the same particle increases, the dimensionless displacement and terminal velocity increases. The dimensionless displacement of polypropylene particles of the same diameter is larger than that of aluminum oxide particles, and the terminal velocity is smaller than that of aluminum oxide particles. This is attributed to the better overall three-phase wettability of polypropylene particle. When the liquid level increases, the dimensionless displacement and terminal velocity of particles under the same conditions show only slight differences (less than 10%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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15 pages, 3868 KiB  
Article
Calorimetric Studies and Thermodynamic Modeling of Ag–Mg–Ti Liquid Alloys
by Weronika Gozdur, Władysław Gąsior, Maciej Zrobek, Andrzej Budziak, Roman Dębski, Wojciech Gierlotka, Magda Pęska, Marek Polański and Adam Dębski
Materials 2024, 17(8), 1786; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081786 - 12 Apr 2024
Viewed by 875
Abstract
Due to the absence of thermodynamic data concerning the Ag–Mg–Ti system in the existing literature, this study aims to fill this gap by offering the outcomes of calorimetric investigations conducted on ternary liquid solutions of these alloys. The measurements were performed using the [...] Read more.
Due to the absence of thermodynamic data concerning the Ag–Mg–Ti system in the existing literature, this study aims to fill this gap by offering the outcomes of calorimetric investigations conducted on ternary liquid solutions of these alloys. The measurements were performed using the drop calorimetry method at temperatures of 1294 K and 1297 K for the liquid solutions with the following constant mole fraction ratio: xAg/xMg = 9/1, 7/3, 1/1, 3/7 [(Ag0.9Mg0.1)1−xTix, (Ag0.7Mg0.3)1−xTix, (Ag0.5Mg0.5)1−xTix, (Ag0.3Mg0.7)1−xTix)], and xAg/xTi = 19/1 [(Ag0.95Ti0.05)1−xMgx]. The results show that the mixing enthalpy change is characterized by negative deviations from the ideal solutions and the observed minimal value equals −13.444 kJ/mol for the Ag0.95Ti0.05 alloy and xMg = 0.4182. Next, based on the thermodynamic properties of binary systems described by the Redlich–Kister model and the determined experimental data from the calorimetric measurements, the ternary optimized parameters for the Ag–Mg–Ti liquid phase were calculated by the Muggianu model. Homemade software (TerGexHm 1.0) was used to optimize the calorimetric data using the least squares method. Next, the partial and molar thermodynamic functions were calculated and are presented in the tables and figures. Moreover, this work presents, for comparative purposes, the values of the enthalpy of mixing of liquid Ag–Mg–Ti alloys, which were calculated using Toop’s model. It was found that the best agreement between the modeled and experimental data was observed for the cross-sections xAg/xTi = 19/1 [(Ag0.95Ti0.05)1−xMgx] and xAg/xMg = 9/1 [(Ag0.9Mg0.1)1−xTix]. The results of the experiments presented in this paper are the first step in the investigation and future evaluation of the thermodynamics of phases and the calculation of the phase diagram of the silver–magnesium–titanium system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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14 pages, 6198 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study of a Representative Sample to Determine the Chemical Composition of Cast Iron
by Martina Laubertova, Silvia Ruzickova, Jarmila Trpcevska and Jaroslav Briancin
Materials 2024, 17(6), 1255; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17061255 - 8 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1020
Abstract
In metallurgical practice, the material is considered of adequate quality if it meets the customer’s expectations. It is necessary to take representative samples and perform quality testing to avoid financial and intangible losses. Sample contamination and matrix and surface quality play a significant [...] Read more.
In metallurgical practice, the material is considered of adequate quality if it meets the customer’s expectations. It is necessary to take representative samples and perform quality testing to avoid financial and intangible losses. Sample contamination and matrix and surface quality play a significant role in the accuracy of chemical analyses. The purpose of this paper is to point out the advantages of specific methods of taking samples, such as immersion and spoon sampling of molten metal, and, in the experimental part, to assess the impacts of factors affecting the quality of the sampling. The influence of time of final sampling on determining the true amount of magnesium during a single melt and the influence of duration of mixing of molten cast iron on the accuracy of chemical analysis of the control sample were investigated. It is important that the time between the modification and casting of the liquid cast iron from the casting ladle be as short as possible. This is because the magnesium burns out and thus the chemical analysis of the sample taken is not accurate. Another important factor is ensuring the melt before sampling is homogenized and has the minimum prescribed temperature (1420 °C). Increasing sample collection time will cause changes in its chemical composition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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16 pages, 11048 KiB  
Article
Development and Validation of Computational Fluid Dynamics Model of Ladle Furnace with Electromagnetic Stirring System
by Monika Zielinska, Hongliang Yang, Lukasz Madej and Lukasz Malinowski
Materials 2024, 17(4), 960; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17040960 - 19 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1165
Abstract
Numerical methods are crucial to supporting the development of new technology in different industries, especially steelmaking, where many phenomena cannot be directly measured or observed under industrial conditions. As a result, further designing and optimizing steelmaking equipment and technology are not easy tasks. [...] Read more.
Numerical methods are crucial to supporting the development of new technology in different industries, especially steelmaking, where many phenomena cannot be directly measured or observed under industrial conditions. As a result, further designing and optimizing steelmaking equipment and technology are not easy tasks. At the same time, numerical approaches enable modeling of various phenomena controlling material behavior and, thus, understanding the physics behind the processes occurring in different metallurgical devices. With this, it is possible to design and develop new technological solutions that improve the quality of steel products and minimize the negative impact on the environment. However, the usage of numerical approaches without proper validation can lead to misleading results and conclusions. Therefore, in this paper, the authors focus on the development of the CFD-based (computational fluid dynamics) approach to investigate the liquid steel flow inside one metallurgical device, namely a ladle furnace combined with an EMS (electromagnetic stirring) system. First, a numerical simulation of electromagnetic stirring in a scaled mercury model of a ladle furnace was carried out. The numerical results, such as stirring speed and turbulent kinetic energy, were compared with measurements in the mercury model. It was found that the results of the transient multiphase CFD model achieve good agreement with the measurements, but a free surface should be included in the CFD model to simulate the instability of the flow pattern in the mercury model. Based on the developed model, a full-scale industrial ladle furnace with electromagnetic stirring was also simulated and presented. This research confirms that such a coupled model can be used to design new types of EMS devices that improve molten steel flow in metallurgical equipment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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17 pages, 4682 KiB  
Article
Chalcopyrite Leaching in the Presence of Isopropanol—The Kinetic and Mechanistic Studies
by Tomasz Michałek, Krzysztof Pacławski and Krzysztof Fitzner
Materials 2024, 17(4), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17040824 - 8 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1066
Abstract
Oxidative leaching, as a basic step of the hydrometallurgical process of pure copper production from chalcopyrite, is a slow process in which mineral acids with strong oxidants addition are usually used as a leaching medium. It was found experimentally that the copper leaching [...] Read more.
Oxidative leaching, as a basic step of the hydrometallurgical process of pure copper production from chalcopyrite, is a slow process in which mineral acids with strong oxidants addition are usually used as a leaching medium. It was found experimentally that the copper leaching from chalcopyrite in the H2SO4–H2O2–H2O system, in the presence of isopropanol (IPA) and under other conditions (H2O2 concentration, rate of mixing and temperature), takes place with satisfactory rate and efficiency. To quantify how much the change of these crucial variables affects the rate of the process, experimentally obtained kinetic curves (conversion over time) were analyzed using a Shrinking Core Model (SCM). The determined values of the copper leaching rate constants (kobs) confirmed the positive influence of increasing IPA and H2O2 concentrations as well as the temperature on the kinetics and efficiency of the leaching. The kinetic studies were also supported by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and adsorption measurements. The positive influence of IPA was explained by its stabilizing role for iron compounds (hematite, magnetite, and pyrite), which are catalysts during the Cu dissolution, as well as H2O2 protection from decomposition during free radical reactions. Finally, the optimal conditions for efficient leaching, the rate-limiting step as well as the mechanism suggestion of the copper dissolution, were given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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18 pages, 6601 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Physical Modeling of Liquid Steel Asymmetric Behavior during Non-Isothermal Conditions in a Two-Strand Slab Tundish—“Butterfly Effect”
by Adam Cwudziński, Jacek Pieprzyca and Tomasz Merder
Materials 2023, 16(21), 6920; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16216920 - 28 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1364
Abstract
This paper presents the results of studies on the occurrence of transient disturbances in the hydrodynamic system of a tundish feeding area and their effect on the casting process. In addition, the effect of changes in the level of superheating of the molten [...] Read more.
This paper presents the results of studies on the occurrence of transient disturbances in the hydrodynamic system of a tundish feeding area and their effect on the casting process. In addition, the effect of changes in the level of superheating of the molten steel fed to the tundish on the evolution of the hydrodynamic system was analyzed. The studies were conducted with the use of a physical model of the tundish and a numerical model, representing the industrial conditions of the process of the continuous casting of steel. When a tundish is fed through a modified ladle shroud that slows down the momentum of the stream, this creates favorable conditions for the emergence of asymmetrical flow within the working tundish volume. The higher the degree of molten steel reheating in the ladle furnace, the stronger the evolution of the hydrodynamic structures in the tundish during the casting process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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17 pages, 4019 KiB  
Article
Two-Way PBM–Euler Model for Gas and Liquid Flow in the Ladle
by Han Zhang, Hong Lei, Changyou Ding, Shifu Chen, Yuanyou Xiao and Qiang Li
Materials 2023, 16(10), 3782; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16103782 - 17 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1421
Abstract
Ladle metallurgy is an important steelmaking technology in high-quality steel production. The blowing of argon at the ladle bottom has been applied in ladle metallurgy for several decades. Until now, the issue of breakage and coalescence among bubbles was still far from being [...] Read more.
Ladle metallurgy is an important steelmaking technology in high-quality steel production. The blowing of argon at the ladle bottom has been applied in ladle metallurgy for several decades. Until now, the issue of breakage and coalescence among bubbles was still far from being solved. In order to have a deep insight into the complex process of fluid flow in the gas-stirred ladle, the Euler–Euler model and population balance model (PBM) are coupled to investigate the complex fluid flow in the gas-stirred ladle. Here, the Euler–Euler model is applied to predict the two-phase flow, and PBM is applied to predict the bubble and size distribution. The coalescence model, which considers turbulent eddy and bubble wake entrainment, is taken into account to determine the evolution of the bubble size. The numerical results show that if the mathematical model ignores the breakage of bubbles, the mathematical model gives the wrong bubble distribution. For bubble coalescence in the ladle, turbulent eddy coalescence is the main mode, and wake entrainment coalescence is the minor mode. Additionally, the number of the bubble-size group is a key parameter for describing the bubble behavior. The size group number 10 is recommended to predict the bubble-size distribution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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Review

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20 pages, 1543 KiB  
Review
Production, Recycling and Economy of Palladium: A Critical Review
by Tomasz Michałek, Volker Hessel and Marek Wojnicki
Materials 2024, 17(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010045 - 21 Dec 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3981
Abstract
Platinum group metals (PGMs), including palladium, play a pivotal role in various industries due to their unique properties. Palladium is frequently employed in technologies aimed at environmental preservation, such as catalytic converters that reduce harmful emissions from vehicles, and in the production of [...] Read more.
Platinum group metals (PGMs), including palladium, play a pivotal role in various industries due to their unique properties. Palladium is frequently employed in technologies aimed at environmental preservation, such as catalytic converters that reduce harmful emissions from vehicles, and in the production of clean energy, notably in the hydrogen evolution process. Regrettably, the production of this vital metal for our environment is predominantly centered in two countries—Russia and South Africa. This centralization has led to palladium being classified as a critical raw material, emphasizing the importance of establishing a secure and sustainable supply chain, as well as employing the most efficient methods for processing materials containing palladium. This review explores techniques for palladium production from primary sources and innovative recycling methods, providing insights into current technologies and emerging approaches. Furthermore, it investigates the economic aspects of palladium production, including price fluctuations influenced by emission regulations and electric vehicle sales, and establishes connections between palladium prices, imports from major producers, as well as copper and nickel prices, considering their often co-occurrence in ores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metallurgy Technologies: Physical and Numerical Modelling)
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