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3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2024) | Viewed by 21659

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Junbo Sun

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Guest Editor

School of Design and the Built Environment, Curtin University, Perth, WA 6102, Australia
Interests: artificial intelligence; cementitious material using 3D printing technology, functional building materials
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Dr. Junfei Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
Interests: low-carbon building materials
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Prof. Dr. Genbao Zhang

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College of Civil Engineering, Hunan City University, Yiyang, Hunan 413000, China
Interests: cementitous composite; machine learning; smart materials; soil; waste solid concrete

Prof. Dr. Shukui Liu

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Guest Editor

School of Mechanics and Civil Engineering，State Key Laboratory for Geomechanics and Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Interests: monitoring of concrete; enhancement of composite materials; numerical modelling; 3D printing technology

Dr. Yuantian Sun

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Guest Editor

School of Mines, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Interests: data analysis using AI and ML; recycling; engineering materials; numerical modeling; simulation
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The concrete industry has developed rapidly over the last 50 years. Nowadays, 3D printing technology has outstanding advantages compared to traditional casting methods, including ample flexibility and improved construction automation. The development of such computer-aided additive manufacturing in the construction industry also enables sufficient buildability and bonding behavior, and it also increases structural integrity, enhancing the mechanical characteristics based on its inherent anisotropic characteristics. In addition, this novel technology is cost-effective, highly efficient, and environmentally friendly, enabling the ability to revolutionize the way we build construction.

The application of construction materials for extrusion-based 3D printing must meet certain vital criteria to be compatible with the printing processes. Different from castable concrete, printable mixtures are designed to be easily extrusive, low-slump, buildable, fast-setting, and with good mechanical strength in order to produce a continuous paste from the printing nozzle and to ensure a rapid modelling of freeform construction.

This Special Issue of Materials focuses on construction materials suitable for 3D printing. Potential paper topics can deal with many aspects related to printable watse solid cementitious composites, functional concrete, high-performance concrete, fiber reinforced concrete, etc. In addition, this Special Issue is expected to provide a collection of articles showing novel 3D printing methodology comprising shotcrete methodology, reinforcement methodology, novel extrusion-based method, particle-based methods, and other new technologies in 3D printing. In addition, the case study, rheological investigations, mechanical performance, structural designs, and review papers of recent advances in the field of digital fabrication are also welcome.

Dr. Junbo Sun
Dr. Junfei Zhang
Prof. Dr. Genbao Zhang
Prof. Dr. Shukui Liu
Dr. Yuantian Sun
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

intelligent fabrication
3D printing technology
printable mixtures
watse solid cementitious composite
functional printable concrete
rheological investigations
advanced methodology
mechanical performance
structural designs

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 6537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behavior of Hardened Printed Concrete and the Effect of Cold Joints: An Experimental Investigation

by Theresa Glotz, Inken Jette Rasehorn and Yuri Petryna

Materials 2024, 17(24), 6304; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246304 - 23 Dec 2024

Viewed by 534

Abstract

The adaptation of 3D printing techniques within the construction industry has opened new possibilities for designing and constructing cementitious materials efficiently and flexibly. The layered nature of extrusion-based concrete printing introduces challenges, such as interlayer weaknesses, that compromise structural integrity and mechanical performance. This experimental study investigates the influence of interlayer orientation and the presence of cold joints (CJ) on mechanical properties, such as stiffness and strength. Three-point bending tests (3PBT) and optical measurement techniques are employed to correlate these properties with the structural response of hardened printed concrete. The analysis determines key properties like Young’s modulus and flexural tensile strength and evaluates them statistically. The investigation examines crack development and failure mechanisms, relating them to the material properties. The findings reveal a strong dependency of material properties and crack formation on layer orientation. Specimens with interlayers aligned parallel to the loading direction exhibit significantly inferior mechanical properties compared with other orientations. The presence of CJ considerably influences the progression of crack formation. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the structural performance of printed concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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18 pages, 8966 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Size Effect on Shear Behaviors of 3D-Printed Soft Rock-like Materials Under Different Shear Velocities

by Chaolei Wu, Lishuai Jiang, Yang Zhao, Qi Wu, Yiming Yang, Xiaohan Peng and Pimao Li

Materials 2024, 17(24), 6180; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246180 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 443

Abstract

The shear failure of rock masses is one of the primary causes of underground engineering instability. The shear mechanical behavior of rocks at different sizes is of great significance for studying the shear failure pattern of engineering rock masses. However, due to the presence of various joints and defects in natural rocks, the obtained rock specimens exhibit significant discreteness, making it difficult to customize specimen sizes for size effect studies. In recent years, 3D printing (3DP) technology has gained widespread application in rock mechanics tests due to its high printing precision and ability to form specimens in a single step with minimal discreteness. Among these, specimens prepared using sand-powder 3DP exhibit elastoplastic mechanical characteristics similar to those of natural rocks. Therefore, this study utilized sand-powder 3DP to prepare rock-like specimens of four different sizes and conducted compression shear tests under three different shear velocities. The shear strength, shear strain, and wear of the shear surfaces were analyzed as functions of specimen size and shear velocities. The results indicate that under the same shear velocity, the shear strength of the specimens is negatively correlated with specimen size. The peak shear strain is generally unaffected by shear velocities, but it increases initially and then decreases with increasing specimen size. As specimen size increases, the degree of specimen damage intensifies, and larger specimens are more prone to developing derived fractures. This study broadens the application of sand-powder 3DP technology in investigating the shear mechanical properties of soft rocks, offering novel insights into the study of size effects in rock mechanics. However, the current research does not encompass tests on 3D-printed rock specimens with varying printing directions, nor does it delve into the role of fractures in size effect analyses. Future investigations will aim to address these limitations, thereby advancing the applicability of 3D printing technology in rock mechanics research and enhancing its contributions to the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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18 pages, 7052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Residue Soil on the Properties of Fly Ash–Slag-Based Geopolymer Materials for 3D Printing

by Zhijie Zhou, Jian Geng, Chen Jin, Genjin Liu and Zhenjiang Xia

Materials 2024, 17(12), 2992; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17122992 - 18 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1297

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of residue soil (RS) powder on the 3D printability of geopolymer composites based on fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag. RS is incorporated into the geopolymer mixture, with its inclusion ranging from 0% to 110% of the combined mass of fly ash and finely ground blast furnace slag. Seven groups of geopolymers were designed and tested for their flowability, setting time, rheology, open time, extrudability, shape retention, buildability, and mechanical properties. The results showed that with the increase in RS content, the fluidity of geopolymer mortar decreases, and the setting time increases first and then decreases. The static yield stress, dynamic yield stress, and apparent viscosity of geopolymer mortar increase with the increase in RS content. For an RS content between 10% and 90%, the corresponding fluidity is above 145 mm, and the yield stress is controlled within the range of 2800 Pa, which meets the requirements of extrusion molding. Except for RS-110, geopolymer mortars with other RS contents showed good extrudability and shape retention. The compressive strength of 3D printing samples of geopolymer mortar containing RS has obvious anisotropy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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13 pages, 2807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast Design Method of Anisotropic Dielectric Lens for Vortex Electromagnetic Wave Based on Deep Learning

by Bingyang Liang, Yonghua Zhang, Yuanguo Zhou, Weiqiang Liu, Tao Ni, Anyi Wang and Yanan Fan

Materials 2023, 16(6), 2254; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062254 - 10 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1618

Abstract

Orbital angular momentum (OAM) has made it possible to regulate classical waves in novel ways, which is more energy- or information-efficient than conventional plane wave technology. This work aims to realize the transition of antenna radiation mode through the rapid design of an anisotropic dielectric lens. The deep learning neural network (DNN) is used to train the electromagnetic properties of dielectric cell structures. Nine variable parameters for changing the dielectric unit structure are present in the input layer of the DNN network. The trained network can predict the transmission phase of the unit cell structure with greater than 98% accuracy within a specific range. Then, to build the corresponding relationship between the phase and the parameters, the gray wolf optimization algorithm is applied. In less than 0.3 s, the trained network can predict the transmission coefficients of the 31 × 31 unit structure in the arrays with great accuracy. Finally, we provide two examples of neural network-based rapid anisotropic dielectric lens design. Dielectric lenses produce the OAM modes +1, −1, and −1, +2 under TE and TM wave irradiation, respectively. This approach resolves the difficult phase matching and time-consuming design issues associated with producing a dielectric lens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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21 pages, 8385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nozzle Details on Print Quality and Hardened Properties of Underwater 3D Printed Concrete

by Jun-Mo Yang, In-Beom Park, Hojae Lee and Hong-Kyu Kwon

Materials 2023, 16(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010034 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3011

Abstract

This study developed a 3D concrete printing (3DCP) system that can print not only in air but also underwater. This underwater 3DCP system is equipped with many distinct technologies, such as a technology to supply the printing material to the nozzle tip at a constant rate by detecting its amount in the printer hopper. Using the developed 3DCP system, the effect of nozzle details on underwater print quality and hardened properties was investigated. The straight-line printing performance underwater was evaluated using five nozzles: a nozzle without a trowel (Nozzel#1), a nozzle with fixed trowels attached to both sides (Nozzle#2), a nozzle with trowels attached to the back and both sides to constrain five sides (Nozzle#3), a nozzle with a three-sided trowel inclined by 30° (Nozzle#4), and a nozzle with a roof added to Nozzle#4 opening (Nozzle#5). Nozzle#4 yielded the best print quality and hardened properties. In addition, an underwater curved shape printing test was performed using Nozzle#4, the problems that occurred in this test were analyzed and solutions were suggested. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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17 pages, 7484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Test Methods to Evaluate the Printability of Concrete Materials for Additive Manufacturing

by Youssef Mortada, Malek Mohammad, Bilal Mansoor, Zachary Grasley and Eyad Masad

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6486; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186486 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2496

Abstract

This study proposes test methods for assessing the printability of concrete materials for Additive Manufacturing. The printability of concrete is divided into three main aspects: flowability, setting time, and buildability. These properties are considered to monitor the critical quality of 3DCP and to ensure a successful print. Flowability is evaluated through a rheometer test, where the evolution of shear yield strength is monitored at a constant rate (rpm), similar to the printer setup. Flowability limits were set based on the user-defined maximum thickness of a printed layer and the onset of gaps/cracks during printing. Setting time is evaluated through an ultrasonic wave pulse velocity test (UPV), where the first inflection point of the evolution of the UPV graph corresponds to the setting time of the concrete specimen. The results from this continuous non-destructive test were found to correlate with the results from the discrete destructive ASTM C-191 test for measuring setting time with a maximum difference of 5% between both sets of values. Lastly, buildability was evaluated through the measurement of the early-age compressive strength of concrete, and a correlation with the UPV results obtained a predictive model that can be used in real-time to non-destructively assess the material buildability. This predictive model had a maximum percentage difference of 13% with the measured values. The outcome of this study is a set of tests to evaluate the properties of 3D printable concrete (3DP) material and provide a basis for a framework to benchmark and design materials for additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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13 pages, 11024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance of Commercially Available Premix UHPC-Based 3D Printable Concrete

by Carolina Medicis, Sergio Gonzalez, Yezid A. Alvarado, Hermes A. Vacca, Ivan F. Mondragon, Rodolfo García and Giovanni Hernandez

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6326; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186326 - 12 Sep 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2964

Abstract

Several recent studies have attempted to formulate printable cementitious materials to meet the printing requirements, but these materials are designed to work with specific printing equipment and printing configurations. This paper aims to systematically develop and perform characterization of a commercially available ultra-high-performance concrete-class material (UHPC) modified to be printable. Four percentages of superplasticizer were used (100%, 94%, 88%, 82%) to adjust the UHPC mixture for 3D-printing requirements. A superplasticizer amount of 88% was considered adequate to meet the requirements. Several fresh and hardened properties of UHPC were measured experimentally: shape-retention ability and green strength were investigated in fresh state, and compressive and flexural strength were evaluated in three loading directions to evaluate the anisotropic effects. Furthermore, the strength of the interlayer bond was investigated. The UHPC developed in this study met the criteria for extrudability, buildability, and shape retention to ensure printability. In comparison with mold-cast UHPC, printed UHPC exhibited superior flexural performance (15–18%), but reduced compressive strength (32–56%). Finally, the results demonstrated that a commercially available UHPC-class material can be used for 3DCP, which possesses all necessary properties, both fresh and hardened. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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13 pages, 16742 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Parametric Study of Coda Wave Interferometry Sensitivity to Microcrack Change in a Multiple Scattering Medium

by Bin Ma, Shukui Liu, Zhanguo Ma, Qi-Ang Wang and Zibo Yu

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4455; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134455 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

The expansion of cracks in 3D printing concrete materials may lead to structural failure, so it is essential to monitor crack propagation development. Coda wave interferometry (CWI) has been proven to be sensitive to microcracks, however, the evolution pattern of ultrasonic coda waves during crack growth is still not clear. This paper reports a numerical study of the sensitivity and feasibility of CWI for monitoring microcrack growth in heterogeneous materials. A two-phase concrete model, which contains microcracks with different angles and lengths, was developed using the finite element analysis software ABAQUS. The relative velocity change

(Δ v / v

) and the decorrelation coefficient (

K d

) at different crack increments were quantitatively analyzed. The numerical simulation results show that coda waves are sensitive to microcrack length as well as the crack angle. The

Δ v / v

increases linearly with the increase of the length of a single microcrack, and the

K d

could be linked to the crack length quadratically. Furthermore, a quantitative functional relationship between the CWI observations (

K d, Δ v / v

) and the angle of the crack to the source/receiver and the relative length growth of the crack are established. In addition, the nonlinear relationship between slope and angle can be fitted with a sinusoidal function. The reported results quantitatively assess the coda wave variation pattern during crack propagation, which is important for the promotion and application of CWI technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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14 pages, 2915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interlayer Bond Strength Testing in 3D-Printed Mineral Materials for Construction Applications

by Izabela Hager, Marcin Maroszek, Katarzyna Mróz, Rafał Kęsek, Marek Hebda, Leonid Dvorkin and Vitaliy Marchuk

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4112; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124112 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2818

Abstract

There are no standards for testing the properties of 3D-printed materials; hence, the need to develop guidelines for implementing this type of experiment is necessary. The work concerns the development of a research methodology for interlayer bond strength evaluation in 3D-printed mineral materials. In additive manufactured construction elements, the bond strength is a significant factor as it determines the load-bearing capacity of the entire structural element. After we completed a literature review, the following three test methods were selected for consideration: direct tensile, splitting, and shear tests. The paper compares the testing procedure, results, and sample failure modes. The splitting test was found to be the most effective for assessing layer adhesion, by giving the lowest scatter of results while being an easy test to carry out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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18 pages, 4431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Influencing the Properties of Extrusion-Based 3D-Printed Alkali-Activated Fly Ash-Slag Mortar

by Qiang Yuan, Chao Gao, Tingjie Huang, Shenghao Zuo, Hao Yao, Kai Zhang, Yanling Huang and Jing Liu

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051969 - 7 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3018

Abstract

The mix proportioning of extrusion-based 3D-printed cementitious material should balance printability and hardened properties. This paper investigated the effects of three key mix proportion parameters of 3D-printed alkali-activated fly ash/slag (3D-AAFS) mortar, i.e., the sand to binder (s/b) ratio, fly ash/ground granulated blast-furnace slag (FA/GGBS) ratio, and silicate modulus (Ms) of the activator, on extrudability, buildability, interlayer strength, and drying shrinkage. The results showed that the loss of extrudability and the development of buildability were accelerated by increasing the s/b ratio, decreasing the FA/GGBS ratio, or using a lower Ms activator. A rise in the s/b ratio improved the interlayer strength and reduces the drying shrinkage. Although increasing the FA/GGBS mass ratio from 1 to 3 led to a reduction of 35% in the interlayer bond strength, it decreased the shrinkage strain by half. A larger silicate modulus was beneficial to the interlayer bond strength, but it made shrinkage more serious. Moreover, a simple centroid design method was developed for optimizing the mix proportion of 3D-AAFS mortar to simultaneously meet the requirements of printability and hardened properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Techniques in Construction Materials)

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