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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 April 2023) | Viewed by 28695

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sujeong Lee

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Guest Editor

Mineral Resources Research Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, 124, Gwahak-ro, Daejeon 34132, Korea
Interests: geopolymers; alkali-activated materials; coal ash; mine tailings; slags

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue, “Recent Development in Geopolymers and Alkali-activated materials”, will address advances in characterization, processing, scale-up, and commercialization of various types of geopolymers, geopolymer composites and alkali-activated materials. Geopolymers and alkali-activated materials have not been viewed as a substitute for Portland cement in bulk applications despite their high potential with excellent properties in niche applications. However, geopolymers and alkali-activated materials represent one of the most efficient approaches to address urgent environmental issues such as CO₂ emissions. Huge amounts of coal ash and slags are discharged from around the world. Alkali activation is a good option for inertization and utilization of mine tailings and other solid inorganic residues formed in the metal and mining industry and energy production. Geopolymers can be a candidate for building moon bases as part of a space exploration plan. Original papers are solicited on all types of geopolymers and alkali-activated material production technologies. Of particular interest are recent developments in advanced processes, characterization, performance, and commercialization. Articles and reviews dealing with geopolymers and alkali-activated materials for different market applications, including a substitute for Portland cement with special purposes such as ash nuclear waste storage, fire-resistant building materials, ceramic precursors as well as other niche applications, are very welcome.

Dr. Sujeong Lee
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Geopolymers
Alkali-activated materials
Coal ash
Slags
Mine tailings
Characterization
Processing
Scale-up
Commercialization
Niche application

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

2 pages, 140 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: “Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials”

by Sujeong Lee

Materials 2024, 17(1), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010245 - 2 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1119

Abstract

As efforts toward global sustainability converge with the imperative to reduce the environmental impact of construction materials, extensive research and development is underway in the field of geopolymers and alkali-activated materials (AAMs) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

Research

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17 pages, 3845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Geopolymer-Based Materials with Ceramic Waste for Artistic and Restoration Applications

by Laura Ricciotti, Alessio Occhicone, Claudio Ferone, Raffaele Cioffi, Oreste Tarallo and Giuseppina Roviello

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8600; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238600 - 2 Dec 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

This contribution presents the preparation and characterization of new geopolymer-based mortars obtained from recycling waste deriving from the production process and the “end-of-life” of porcelain stoneware products. Structural, morphological, and mechanical studies carried out on different kinds of mortars prepared by using several types of by-products (i.e., pressed burnt and extruded ceramic waste, raw pressed and gypsum resulting from exhausted moulds) point out that these systems can be easily cast, also in complex shapes, and show a more consistent microstructure with respect to the geopolymer paste, with a reduced amount of microcracks. Moreover, the excellent adhesion of these materials to common substrates such as pottery and earthenware, even for an elevated concentration of filler, suggests their use in the field of technical-artistic value-added applications, such as restoration, conservation, and/or rehabilitation of historic monuments, or simply as materials for building revetments. For all these reasons, the proposed materials could represent valuable candidates to try to overcome some problems experienced in the cultural heritage sector concerning the selection of environmentally friendly materials that simultaneously meet art and design technical requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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23 pages, 8891 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Na₂CO₃/Na₂SiO₃ Ratio and Curing Temperature on the Structure Formation of Alkali-Activated High-Carbon Biomass Fly Ash Pastes

by Chengjie Zhu, Ina Pundienė, Jolanta Pranckevičienė and Modestas Kligys

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8354; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238354 - 24 Nov 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2198

Abstract

This study explored unprocessed high-carbon biomass fly ash (BFA) in alkali-activated materials (AAM) with less alkaline Na₂CO₃ as the activator. In this paper, the effects of the Na₂CO₃/Na₂SiO₃ (C/S) ratio and curing temperature (40 °C and 20 °C) on the setting time, structure formation, product synthesis, and physical-mechanical properties of alkali-activated BFA pastes were systematically investigated. Regardless of curing temperature, increasing the C/S ratio increased the density and compressive strength of the sample while a decrease in water absorption. The higher the curing temperature, the faster the structure evolution during the BFA-based alkaline activation synthesis process and the higher the sample’s compressive strength. According to XRD and TG/DTA analyses, the synthesis of gaylussite and C-S-H were observed in the sample with an increasing C/S ratio. The formation of the mentioned minerals contributes to the compressive strength growth of alkali-activated BFA pastes with higher C/S ratios. The findings of this study contribute to the applicability of difficult-to-recycle waste materials such as BFA and the development of sustainable BFA-based AAM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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20 pages, 6083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Mechanical Properties of Fly-Ash/Slag-Based Geopolymer Concrete Using Ensemble and Non-Ensemble Machine-Learning Techniques

by Muhammad Nasir Amin, Kaffayatullah Khan, Muhammad Faisal Javed, Fahid Aslam, Muhammad Ghulam Qadir and Muhammad Iftikhar Faraz

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3478; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103478 - 12 May 2022

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 2994

Abstract

The emission of greenhouse gases and natural-resource depletion caused by the production of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) have a detrimental effect on the environment. Thus, an alternative means is required to produce eco-friendly concrete such as geopolymer concrete (GPC). However, GPC has a complex cementitious matrix and an ambiguous mix design. Aside from that, the composition and proportions of materials utilized may have an impact on the compressive strength. Similarly, the use of robust and efficient machine-learning (ML) approaches is now required to forecast the strength of such a composite cementitious matrix. As a result, this study anticipated the compressive strength of GPC with waste resources using ensemble and non-ensemble ML algorithms. This was accomplished through the use of Anaconda (Python). To build a strong ensemble learner by integrating weak learners, adaptive boosting, random forest (RF), and ensemble learner bagging were employed. Furthermore, ensemble learners were utilized on non-ensemble or weak learners, such as decision trees (DT) and support vector machines (SVM) via regression. The data encompassed 156 statistical samples in which nine variables, namely superplasticizer (kg/m³), fly ash (kg/m³), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), temperature (°C), coarse and fine aggregate (kg/m³), sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), were chosen to anticipate the results. Exploring it in depth, twenty sub-models with ensemble boosting and bagging approaches were trained, and tuning was performed to achieve the highest possible coefficient of determination (R²). Moreover, cross K-Fold validation analysis and statistical checks were performed via indicators for the evaluation of the models. The result revealed that ensemble approaches yielded robust performance compared to non-ensemble algorithms. Generally, an ensemble learner with the RF and bagging approach on a DT yielded robust performance by achieving a better R² as 0.93, and with the lowest statistical errors. The communal model in artificial-intelligence analysis, on average, improved the accuracy of the model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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12 pages, 1556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Setting Behavior and Phase Evolution on Heat Treatment of Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers Containing Calcium Hydroxide

by Byoungkwan Kim, Sujeong Lee, Chul-Min Chon and Shinhu Cho

Materials 2022, 15(1), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010194 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 2677

Abstract

The setting behavior of geopolymers is affected by the type of source materials, alkali activators, mix formulations, and curing conditions. Calcium hydroxide is known to be an effective additive to shorten the setting period of geopolymers. However, there is still room for improvement in the understanding of the effect of calcium hydroxide on the setting and phase evolution of geopolymers. In this study, the setting behavior and phase evolution of geopolymer containing calcium hydroxide were investigated by XRD analysis. The setting time of the geopolymer was inconsistently shortened as the amount of calcium hydroxide increased. A low calcium hydroxide dose of up to 2% of the total mix weight could contribute to the enhancement of compressive strength of geopolymers besides a fast-setting effect. The C-S-H gel is rapidly precipitated at the early stage of reaction in geopolymers containing high calcium hydroxide with some of the calcium hydroxide remaining intact. The ex-situ high-temperature XRD analysis and Rietveld refinement results revealed that geopolymer and C-S-H gel transformed into Si-rich nepheline and wollastonite, respectively. The wollastonite was also observed in heat-treated geopolymers with a low calcium hydroxide dose. It is believed that C-S-H gel can be precipitated along with geopolymers regardless of how much calcium hydroxide is added. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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24 pages, 10599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of Quarry Rock Dust Incorporated Steel Fiber Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete and Residual Properties after Exposure to Elevated Temperatures

by Muhammad Ibraheem, Faheem Butt, Rana Muhammad Waqas, Khadim Hussain, Rana Faisal Tufail, Naveed Ahmad, Ksenia Usanova and Muhammad Ali Musarat

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6890; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226890 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2533

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to study the effects of quarry rock dust (QRD) and steel fibers (SF) inclusion on the fresh, mechanical, and microstructural properties of fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (SG)-based geopolymer concrete (GPC) exposed to elevated temperatures. Such types of ternary mixes were prepared by blending waste materials from different industries, including QRD, SG, and FA, with alkaline activator solutions. The multiphysical models show that the inclusion of steel fibers and binders can enhance the mechanical properties of GPC. In this study, a total of 18 different mix proportions were designed with different proportions of QRD (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) and steel fibers (0.75% and 1.5%). The slag was replaced by different proportions of QRD in fly ash, and SG-based GPC mixes to study the effect of QRD incorporation. The mechanical properties of specimens, i.e., compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and flexural strength, were determined by testing cubes, cylinders, and prisms, respectively, at different ages (7, 28, and 56 days). The specimens were also heated up to 800 °C to evaluate the resistance of specimens to elevated temperature in terms of residual compressive strength and weight loss. The test results showed that the mechanical strength of GPC mixes (without steel fibers) increased by 6–11%, with an increase in QRD content up to 15% at the age of 28 days. In contrast, more than 15% of QRD contents resulted in decreasing the mechanical strength properties. Incorporating steel fibers in a fraction of 0.75% by volume increased the compressive, tensile, and flexural strength of GPC mixes by 15%, 23%, and 34%, respectively. However, further addition of steel fibers at 1.5% by volume lowered the mechanical strength properties. The optimal mixture of QRD incorporated FA-SG-based GPC (QFS-GPC) was observed with 15% QRD and 0.75% steel fibers contents considering the performance in workability and mechanical properties. The results also showed that under elevated temperatures up to 800 °C, the weight loss of QFS-GPC specimens persistently increased with a consistent decrease in the residual compressive strength for increasing QRD content and temperature. Furthermore, the microstructure characterization of QRD blended GPC mixes were also carried out by performing scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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17 pages, 31371 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development and Characteristics of Aerated Alkali-Activated Slag Cement Mixed with Zinc Powder

by Taewan Kim, Choonghyun Kang and Kiyoung Seo

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6293; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216293 - 22 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1899

Abstract

Experiments on the development and properties of aerated concrete based on alkali-activated slag cement (AASC) and using Zn powder (ZP) as a gas agent were carried out. The experiments were designed for water-binding material (w/b) ratios of 0.35 and 0.45, curing temperatures of 23 ± 2 °C and 40 ± 2 °C, and ZP of 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75%, and 1.0%. ZP generates hydrogen (H₂) gas in AASC to form pores. At a w/b of 0.35, the curing temperature had little effect on the pore size by ZP. However, a w/b of 0.45 showed a clear correlation that the pore diameter increased as the curing temperature increased. The low w/b of 0.35 showed a small change in the pore size according to the curing temperature due to the faster setting time than 0.45 and the increased viscosity of the paste. Therefore, at a termination time exceeding at least 60 min and a w/b of 0.45 or more, it was possible to increase the size and expansion force of the pores formed by the ZP through the change of the curing temperature. ZP showed applicability to the manufacture of AASC-based aerated concrete, and the characteristics of foaming according to the curing temperature, w/b ratio, and ZP concentration were confirmed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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16 pages, 7314 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Immobilization of Heavy Metals in Boroaluminosilicate Geopolymers

by Piotr Rożek, Paulina Florek, Magdalena Król and Włodzimierz Mozgawa

Materials 2021, 14(1), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010214 - 4 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3292

Abstract

Boroaluminosilicate geopolymers were used for the immobilization of heavy metals. Then, their mechanical properties, phase composition, structure, and microstructure were investigated. The addition of borax and boric acid did not induce the formation of any crystalline phases. Boron was incorporated into the geopolymeric network and caused the formation of N–B–A–S–H (hydrated sodium boroaluminosilicate) gel. In the range of a B/Al molar ratio of 0.015–0.075, the compressive strength slightly increased (from 16.1 to 18.7 MPa), while at a ratio of 0.150, the compressive strength decreased (to 12 MPa). Heavy metals (lead and nickel) were added as nitrate salts. The loss of the strength of the geopolymers induced by heavy metals was limited by the presence of boron. However, it caused an increase in heavy metal leaching. Despite this, heavy metals were almost entirely immobilized (with immobilization rates of >99.8% in the case of lead and >99.99% in the case of nickel). The lower immobilization rate of lead was due to the formation of macroscopic crystalline inclusions of PbO·xH₂O, which was vulnerable to leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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20 pages, 2558 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Geopolymers as Substitutes for Traditional Ceramics for Bricks with Chamotte and Biomass Bottom Ash

by Juan María Terrones-Saeta, Jorge Suárez-Macías, Francisco Javier Iglesias-Godino and Francisco Antonio Corpas-Iglesias

Materials 2021, 14(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14010199 - 4 Jan 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2632

Abstract

The greater environmental awareness, new environmental regulations and the optimization of resources make possible the development of sustainable materials as substitutes for the traditional materials used in construction. In this work, geopolymers were developed as substitutes to traditional ceramics for brick manufacture, using as raw materials: chamotte, as a source of aluminosilicate, and biomass bottom ashes from the combustion of almond shell and alpeorujo (by-product produced in the extraction of olive oil composed of solid parts of the olive and vegetable fats), as the alkaline activator. For the feasibility study, samples were made of all possible combinations of both residues from 100% chamotte to 100% biomass bottom ash. The tests carried out on these sample families were the usual physical tests for ceramic materials, notably the compression strength test, as well as colorimetric tests. The freezing test was also carried out to study the in-service behavior of the different sample groups. The families with acceptable results were subjected to Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis. The results of the previous tests showed that the geopolymer was indeed created for the final families and that acceptable mechanical and aging properties were obtained according to European standards. Therefore, the possibility of creating geopolymers with chamotte and biomass bottom ashes as substitutes for conventional ceramics was confirmed, developing an economical, sustainable material, without major changes in equipment and of similar quality to those traditionally used for bricks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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Review

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17 pages, 4113 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Current Research on the Use of Geopolymer Recycled Aggregate Concrete for Structural Members

by Muhammad Ahmed, Piero Colajanni and Salvatore Pagnotta

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8911; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248911 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1994

Abstract

Geopolymer cement (GPC) is a sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) that considerably cuts the emission of carbon dioxide linked to the building of concrete structures. Over the last few decades, while a large number of papers have been written concerning the use of GPC with natural aggregates and OPC with recycled aggregates, few papers have been devoted to investigating the use of Geopolymer Recycled Aggregate Concrete (GRAC) in structural members. Most of them show more interest in the mechanical strength of the material, rather than the structural behavior of RC members. This review critically compiles the present and past research on the behavior of structural members cast with different types and compositions of GRAC. The focus is on the few research studies investigating the structural behavior of GRAC elements, with an analysis of the load-bearing capacity, the load-deflection mechanism, shear behavior, tensile and flexural strength, and ductility of GRAC structural members. This review aims to indicate the research and experimental tests needed in the future for characterizing the behavior of structural members made up of GRAC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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11 pages, 612 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Geopolymer Technology for Lunar Base Construction

by Sujeong Lee and Arie van Riessen

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4516; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134516 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3715

Abstract

Geopolymer is a synthetic amorphous aluminosilicate material that can be used as an inorganic binder to replace ordinary Portland cement. Geopolymer is produced by mixing aluminosilicate source materials with alkali activators and curing the mixture either at ambient or low temperatures. Geopolymer research for lunar-based construction is actively underway to enable astronauts to stay on the moon for long periods. This research has been spurred on by earnest discussions of in situ resource utilization (ISRU). Recent research shows that the lunar regolith simulant-based geopolymers have high application potential to protect astronauts from the harsh moon environment. However, not all the simulants perfectly reproduce the lunar regolith, and the characteristics of the lunar regolith vary depending on the site. Issues remain regarding the applicability of geopolymer technology to contribute to ISRU through an elaborate and systematic plan of experiments. In this paper, the potential of geopolymers is assessed as a lunar-based construction material with the latest research results. Future work to develop the lunar regolith-based geopolymer technology is also proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Geopolymers and Alkali-Activated Materials)

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