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20 pages, 7634 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Potassium Salts Phase Stabilizers and Binder Matrix on the Properties of Novel Composite Rocket Propellants Based on Ammonium Nitrate

by Traian Rotariu, Bogdan-Gheorghe Pulpea, Florin-Marian Dîrloman, Aurel Diacon, Edina Rusen, Gabriela Toader, Neculai-Daniel Zvîncu, Tanţa-Verona Iordache and Răzvan Horia Botiș

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8960; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248960 - 15 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2527

Abstract

The environmental impact and availability of ingredients are vital for the new generation of rocket propellants. In this context, several novel composite propellants were prepared based on the “greener” oxidizer phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (PSAN), a micronized aluminum–magnesium alloy fuel, iron oxide powder burn [...] Read more.

The environmental impact and availability of ingredients are vital for the new generation of rocket propellants. In this context, several novel composite propellants were prepared based on the “greener” oxidizer phase-stabilized ammonium nitrate (PSAN), a micronized aluminum–magnesium alloy fuel, iron oxide powder burn rate modifier, triethylene glycol dinitrate (TEGDN) energetic plasticizer and a polyurethane (PU) binder. The novelty of this study is brought by the innovative procedure of synthesizing and combining the constituents of these heterogeneous compositions to obtain high-performance “eco-friendly” rocket propellants. The polymorphism shortcomings brought by ammonium nitrate in these energetic formulations have been solved by its co-crystallization with potassium salts (potassium nitrate, potassium chromate, potassium dichromate, potassium sulphate, potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate). Polyester–polyol blends, resulting from recycled post-consumer polyethylene terephthalate (PET) glycolysis, were utilized for the synthesis of the polyurethane binder, especially designed for this type of application. To adjust the energetic output and tailor the mechanical properties of the propellant, the energetic plasticizer TEGDN was also involved. The performance and safety characteristics of the novel composites were evaluated through various analytical techniques (TGA, DTA, XRD) and specific tests (rate of combustion, heat of combustion, specific volume, chemical stability, sensitivity to thermal, impact and friction stimuli), according to NATO standards, providing promising preliminary results for further ballistics investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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20 pages, 3953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Efficient Synthesis and Preliminary Investigation of Novel 1,3-Dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one Nitro and Nitramino Derivatives

by Jonas Šarlauskas, Jonita Stankevičiūtė and Jelena Tamulienė

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8330; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238330 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1671

Abstract

The preparation and properties of a series of novel 1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one nitro and nitramino derivatives are described. A detailed crystal structure of one of the obtained compounds, 4,5,6-trinitro-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one (TriNBO), was characterized using low temperature single crystal X-ray diffraction, namely an [...] Read more.

The preparation and properties of a series of novel 1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one nitro and nitramino derivatives are described. A detailed crystal structure of one of the obtained compounds, 4,5,6-trinitro-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one (TriNBO), was characterized using low temperature single crystal X-ray diffraction, namely an orthorhombic yellow prism, space group ‘P 2 21 21′, experimental crystal density 1.767 g/cm³ (at 173 K). Methyl analog, 5-Me-TriNBO-monoclinic red plates, space group, P 21/c, crystal density 1.82 g/cm³. TriNBO contains one activated nitro group at the fifth position, which was used for the nucleophilic substitution in the aminolysis reactions with three monoalkylamines (R=CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂CH₃) and ethanolamine. The 5-R-aminoderivatives were further nitrated with N₂O₅/ HNO₃ and resulted in a new group of appropriate nitramines: 1,3-dihydro-2H-5-R-N(NO₂)-4,6-dinitrobenzimidazol-2-ones. Thermal analysis (TGA) of three selected representatives was performed. The new compounds possess a high melting point (200–315 °C) and thermal stability and can find a potential application as new thermostable energetic materials. Some calculated preliminary energetic characteristics show that TriNBO, 5-Me-TriNBO, 5-methylnitramino-1,3-dihydro-2H-4,6-dinitrobenzimidazol-2-one, and 5-nitratoethylnitramino-1,3-dihydro-2H-4,6-dinitrobenzimidazol-2-one possess increased energetic characteristics in comparison with TNT and tetryl. The proposed nitrocompounds may find potential applications as thermostable high-energy materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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19 pages, 5137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Nitro- and Acetyl Derivatives of 3,7,10-Trioxo-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane

by Vera S. Glukhacheva, Sergey G. Il’yasov, Elena O. Shestakova, Egor E. Zhukov, Dmitri S. Il’yasov, Anastasia A. Minakova, Ilia V. Eltsov, Andrey A. Nefedov and Alexander M. Genaev

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8320; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238320 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1639

Abstract

Here, we report the study results of the nitration of 3,7,10-trioxo-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane (THAP) by different nitrating agents such as nitric acid, mixed nitric/sulfuric acids, nitric anhydride, and mixed concentrated nitric acid/acetic anhydride to furnish 3,7,10-trioxo-2-nitro-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane and 3,7,10-trioxo-2,8-dinitro-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane, whereas a lactam–lactim rearrangement was found to [...] Read more.

Here, we report the study results of the nitration of 3,7,10-trioxo-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane (THAP) by different nitrating agents such as nitric acid, mixed nitric/sulfuric acids, nitric anhydride, and mixed concentrated nitric acid/acetic anhydride to furnish 3,7,10-trioxo-2-nitro-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane and 3,7,10-trioxo-2,8-dinitro-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane, whereas a lactam–lactim rearrangement was found to take place upon vigorous cooling to give 10-hydroxy-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaazatricyclo[3.3.3.01,5]undec-9-ene-3,7-dione. The two competing reactions, lactam–lactim rearrangement, and nitration were found to take place. The acylation of 3,7,10-trioxo-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane was examined and the formation conditions of 2,6-di- and 2,6,9-triacetyl-substituted and 3,7,10-trioxo-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaacetyl-2,4,6,8,9,11-hexaaza[3.3.3]propellane were established. The acetyl derivatives were found to be instable in an acidic medium and to undergo deacylation. The obtained findings correlate well with the quantum-chemical calculations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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13 pages, 2553 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Model of the Pulse Generation of Decontaminating Aerosols

by Olga Kudryashova, Sergei Sokolov, Ilya Zhukov and Alexander Vorozhtsov

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8215; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228215 - 18 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1245

Abstract

A mathematical model of the pulse generation of decontaminating aerosols utilizing the energy of high-energy materials (HEM) is proposed with account for the physical and chemical properties of the atomized substance, HEM characteristics, and gas generator parameters. Such a model is needed to [...] Read more.

A mathematical model of the pulse generation of decontaminating aerosols utilizing the energy of high-energy materials (HEM) is proposed with account for the physical and chemical properties of the atomized substance, HEM characteristics, and gas generator parameters. Such a model is needed to counter the environmental hazards, process emissions, and terrorist attacks with hazardous and dangerous aerosols. Another aspect of the problem is the danger of biological aerosols carrying viral or microbial particles that are spread naturally or induced using biological weapons. In many cases, the mission is not only to neutralize aerosol particles in indoor air and on surfaces but also to do it quickly. In this regard, an attractive option is the pulse method for generating special aerosols aimed at quickly, within a few seconds, creating a cloud of particles that will interact with hazardous aerosol particles and decontaminate them. HEM energy is proposed to be used for the pulse generation of such aerosols. It is important not only to atomize the decontaminating aerosol quickly and evenly in space but also to preserve the useful physical and chemical properties of the particles. To test the regimes and methods of pulse generation, an adequate mathematical model of the process is required, which is proposed in this manuscript. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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14 pages, 2699 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Investigating the Effect of Ammonium Nitrate on the Characteristics and Thermal Decomposition Behavior of Energetic Double Base NC/DEGDN Composite

by Hani Boukeciat, Ahmed Fouzi Tarchoun, Djalal Trache, Amir Abdelaziz, Rania Ahmed Hamada, Ayemen Bouhantala, Chamseddine Bousstila, Sabrina Hanafi, Mohammed Dourari and Thomas M. Klapötke

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8138; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228138 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1918

Abstract

This research work aimed to elaborate on a new modified double-base propellant containing nitrocellulose (NC), ammonium nitrate (AN), and diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN). The developed AN/NC-DEGDN formulation was successfully obtained through a casting process and fully characterized in terms of its chemical structure, [...] Read more.

This research work aimed to elaborate on a new modified double-base propellant containing nitrocellulose (NC), ammonium nitrate (AN), and diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN). The developed AN/NC-DEGDN formulation was successfully obtained through a casting process and fully characterized in terms of its chemical structure, morphological features, and thermal behavior. Beforehand, theoretical calculation by the CEA-NASA program was applied to select the optimal composition of the formulation. Experimental findings demonstrated the homogenous dispersion of AN oxidizer in the NC-DEGDN matrix without alteration of their molecular structures. The catalytic influence of AN on the thermal decomposition behavior of NC-DEGDN film was also elucidated by thermal analyses. When AN was incorporated into the formulation, the decomposition peak temperatures for the different decomposition processes were shifted toward lower temperatures, while the total enthalpy of decomposition increased by around 1272.24 J/g. In addition, the kinetics of the thermal decomposition of the developed modified double base propellant were investigated using DSC results coupled with model kinetic approaches. It was found that the addition of AN decreases the activation energy of nitrate esters from 134.5 kJ/mol to 118.84 kJ/mol, providing evidence for its excellent catalytic effect. Overall, this investigation could serve as a reference for developing future generation of modified double-base propellants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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5 pages, 782 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Nitration of 2,6,8,12-Tetraacetyl-2,4,6,8,10,12-Hexaazaisowurtzitane Derivatives

by Maya V. Chikina, Daria A. Kulagina and Sergey V. Sysolyatin

Materials 2022, 15(22), 7880; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227880 - 8 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1414

Abstract

The nitration of novel bioactive derivatives of 2,6,8,12-tetraacetyl-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane in different nitrating systems was examined. The yield of CL-20, the known product from the nitration of hexaazaisowurtzitane compounds, was found to depend on the nature of substituents at the 4,1 positions and on the [...] Read more.

The nitration of novel bioactive derivatives of 2,6,8,12-tetraacetyl-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane in different nitrating systems was examined. The yield of CL-20, the known product from the nitration of hexaazaisowurtzitane compounds, was found to depend on the nature of substituents at the 4,1 positions and on the composition of the nitrating mixture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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10 pages, 1768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Macrocycle as a “Container” for Dinitramide Salts

by Sergey G. Il’yasov, Vera S. Glukhacheva, Dmitri S. Il’yasov and Egor E. Zhukov

Materials 2022, 15(19), 6958; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196958 - 7 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1413

Abstract

Dinitramic acid salts are promising components as oxidizers and burning-rate modifiers of high-energy compositions. However, most of these salts are not free of drawbacks such as hygroscopicity. Therefore, their application under special conditions of use and storage is limited. The synthesis and storage [...] Read more.

Dinitramic acid salts are promising components as oxidizers and burning-rate modifiers of high-energy compositions. However, most of these salts are not free of drawbacks such as hygroscopicity. Therefore, their application under special conditions of use and storage is limited. The synthesis and storage of stable dinitramic acid salts is a topical issue. Here, we synthesized an adduct starting from the nickel salt of dinitramic acid with carbohydrazide and glyoxal to settle the problem of stability and storage of that salt. The chemical composition of the adduct was confirmed by infrared spectroscopy and elemental analysis. The Ni content was determined by atomic emission spectroscopy. Thermogravimetric DSC and TGA analyses showed the adduct to have three decomposition stages. The adduct exhibits a good thermal stability and a low sensitivity to mechanical stimuli. Here, the adduct is demonstrated to be a promising burning-rate inhibitor of pyrotechnic compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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20 pages, 5210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New 5-Aminotetrazole-Based Energetic Polymers: Synthesis, Structure and Properties

by Gennady T. Sukhanov, Konstantin K. Bosov, Yulia V. Filippova, Anna G. Sukhanova, Irina A. Krupnova and Ekaterina V. Pivovarova

Materials 2022, 15(19), 6936; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196936 - 6 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2041

Abstract

An N-glycidyl-5-aminotetrazole homopolymer was synthesized herein by nucleophilic substitution of 5-aminotetrazole heterocycles for chlorine atoms in poly-(epichlorohydrin)-butanediol. Copolymers of N-glycidyl-5-aminotetrazole and glycidyl azide with a varied ratio of energetic elements were synthesized by simultaneously reacting the 5-aminotetrazole sodium salt and the azide ion [...] Read more.

An N-glycidyl-5-aminotetrazole homopolymer was synthesized herein by nucleophilic substitution of 5-aminotetrazole heterocycles for chlorine atoms in poly-(epichlorohydrin)-butanediol. Copolymers of N-glycidyl-5-aminotetrazole and glycidyl azide with a varied ratio of energetic elements were synthesized by simultaneously reacting the 5-aminotetrazole sodium salt and the azide ion with the starting polymeric matrix. The 5-aminotetrazole-based homopolymer was nitrated to furnish a polymer whose macromolecule is enriched additionally with energy-rich terminal ONO₂ groups and nitrate anions. The structures of the synthesized polymers were characterized by ¹H and ¹³C NMR and IR spectroscopies, elemental analysis and gel-permeation chromatography. The densities were experimentally measured, and thermal stability data were acquired by differential scanning calorimetry. The insertion of aminotetrazole heterocycles into the polymeric chain and their modification via nitration provides an acceptable thermal stability and a considerable enhancement in density and nitrogen content compared to azide homopolymer GAP. By the 1.3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction, we demonstrated the conceptual possibility of preparing spatially branched, energy-rich polymeric binders bearing 5-aminotetrazole and 1,2,3-triazole heterocycles starting from the plasticized azide copolymers. The presence of the aforesaid advantages makes the reported polymers attractive candidates for use as a scaffold of energetic binders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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18 pages, 38531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Combustion of KMnO₄/Zn Pyrotechnic Delay Composition

by Mateusz Polis, Konrad Szydło, Tomasz Jarosz, Marcin Procek, Paweł Skóra and Agnieszka Stolarczyk

Materials 2022, 15(18), 6406; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186406 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1990

Abstract

This article reports an investigation of the combustion of a binary pyrotechnic delay composition (PDC), consisting of zinc powder as fuel and KMnO₄ as an oxidising agent, with zinc content ranging from 35 to 70 wt. %. The linear burning rate for [...] Read more.

This article reports an investigation of the combustion of a binary pyrotechnic delay composition (PDC), consisting of zinc powder as fuel and KMnO₄ as an oxidising agent, with zinc content ranging from 35 to 70 wt. %. The linear burning rate for delay compositions in the form of pyrotechnic fuses was investigated. Compositions with zinc content between 50 and 70 wt. % yielded burn rates in the range of 13.30–28.05 mm/s. The delay compositions were also tested for their sensitivity to friction and impact, where the compositions showed impact sensitivity in the range from 7.5 to 50 J and were insensitive to friction. Tests in a pressure bomb were carried out to determine the maximum overpressure and pressurisation rate. The thermal properties of the composition were evaluated by thermogravimetric analysis (DTA/TG). The morphology of the combustion products was studied by SEM technique, EDS analyses were used to investigate the element distribution of the post-combustion residues, providing an insight into the phenomena taking place during the combustion of the delay compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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13 pages, 10931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energetic Materials Based on N-substituted 4(5)-nitro-1,2,3-triazoles

by Gennady T. Sukhanov, Yulia V. Filippova, Yuri V. Gatilov, Anna G. Sukhanova, Irina A. Krupnova, Konstantin K. Bosov, Ekaterina V. Pivovarova and Vyacheslav I. Krasnov

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031119 - 31 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2176

Abstract

The regularities and synthetic potentialities of the alkylation of 4(5)-nitro-1,2,3-triazole in basic media were explored, and new energetic ionic and nitrotriazole-based coordination compounds were synthesized in this study. The reaction had a general nature and ended with the formation of N1-, N [...] Read more.

The regularities and synthetic potentialities of the alkylation of 4(5)-nitro-1,2,3-triazole in basic media were explored, and new energetic ionic and nitrotriazole-based coordination compounds were synthesized in this study. The reaction had a general nature and ended with the formation of N1-, N2-, and N3-alkylation products, regardless of the conditions and reagent nature (alkyl- or aryl halides, alkyl nitrates, dialkyl sulfates). This reaction offers broad opportunities for expanding the variability of substituents on the nitrotriazole ring in the series of primary and secondary aliphatic, alicyclic, and aromatic substituents, which is undoubtedly crucial for solving the problems related to both high-energy materials development and medicinal chemistry when searching for new efficient bioactive compounds. An efficient methodology for the separation of regioisomeric N-alkyl(aryl)nitrotriazoles has been devised and relies on the difference in their basicity and reactivity during quaternization and complexation reactions. Based on the inaccessible N3-substitution products that exhibit a combination of properties of practical importance, a series of energy-rich ionic systems and coordination compounds were synthesized that are gaining ever-increasing interest for the chemistry of energy-efficient materials, coordination chemistry, and chemistry of ionic liquids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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16 pages, 29117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Sensitizing Agent Formulation for Bulk Emulsion Explosives with Improved Energetic Parameters

by Bartlomiej Kramarczyk, Mateusz Pytlik, Piotr Mertuszka, Katarzyna Jaszcz and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2022, 15(3), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030900 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4342

Abstract

Bulk emulsion explosives, although they are very convenient and safe to use, also have disadvantages, with the main one being the relatively low power in relation to cartridged emulsion explosives or classic nitroesters (e.g., dynamites). Therefore, materials of this type currently have only [...] Read more.

Bulk emulsion explosives, although they are very convenient and safe to use, also have disadvantages, with the main one being the relatively low power in relation to cartridged emulsion explosives or classic nitroesters (e.g., dynamites). Therefore, materials of this type currently have only limited use. In addition, these materials are characterized by the variability of blasting parameters over time from loading into the blasthole, which is closely dependent on the utilised mining method of the mine, which makes it difficult to precisely control the fragmentation. The industry is trying to respond to the demand for bulk emulsion explosives with increased energy and improved parameter stability, but so far it has not been possible to do so in a safe and effective way. Methods of improving blasting parameters mainly rely on additives to oxidant solutions during production, which creates additional risks at the production stage, as it involves handling hot and concentrated ammonium nitrate solutions, for which there are known cases of uncontrolled decomposition of such solutions, even leading to an explosion. This paper presents a method of improving the thermodynamic parameters and the stability of the sensitization reaction without the need for changes in the oxidant solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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14 pages, 18880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theft-Safe Explosive Mixtures Based on Hydrogen Peroxide: Study of Properties and Built-In Self-Deactivation Kinetics

by Mateusz Polis, Karolina Nikolczuk, Andrzej Maranda, Agnieszka Stolarczyk and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5818; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195818 - 5 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3388

Abstract

The current focus on both environmental and general safety is an important issue in the field of explosives. As such, environmentally-friendly explosives, based on hydrogen peroxide (HTP) as an oxidising agent, are of significant interest. These explosives can be designed to undergo self-deactivation, [...] Read more.

The current focus on both environmental and general safety is an important issue in the field of explosives. As such, environmentally-friendly explosives, based on hydrogen peroxide (HTP) as an oxidising agent, are of significant interest. These explosives can be designed to undergo self-deactivation, denying access to them by any unlawful third parties that may attempt scavenging blasting sites for any residual energetic materials. Such deactivation also improves blasting safety, as, after a set time, misfired charges no longer pose any explosive threat. In this work, we have designed HTP-based explosive formulations that undergo deactivation after approximately 12 h. To this effect, Al powders were used both as fuels and HTP decomposition promoters. The shock wave parameters and ability to perform mechanical work of the proposed explosive formulations are comparable to those of dynamites and bulk emulsion explosives, and the details of the changes of these parameters over time are also reported. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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15 pages, 1087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Benzimidazole Derivatives as Energetic Materials: A Theoretical Study

by Jonas Sarlauskas, Jelena Tamuliene, Svajone Bekesiene and Alexander Kravcov

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4112; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154112 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1833

Abstract

The explosive properties and stability of benzimidazole compounds are studied to determine the influence of substituents and their position. The results obtained reveal the conjugation of substituents as one of the crucial factors for the thermal stability of these compounds. We also found [...] Read more.

The explosive properties and stability of benzimidazole compounds are studied to determine the influence of substituents and their position. The results obtained reveal the conjugation of substituents as one of the crucial factors for the thermal stability of these compounds. We also found that two -CH₃ substituents increase the thermal stability of the parent compound, while nitro groups decrease it. Moreover, the study clearly exhibits that the combination of an -NO₂ substituent with -CH₃ does not change the stability of the benzimidazole. On the other hand, nitro groups increase the chemical stability and explosive properties of the compounds under investigation, but their sensitivity could not fully satisfy the requirements of their safety and increase their toxicity. The main results of the study indicate that high thermal and chemical stability, low toxicity and sensitivity, and good explosive properties could be achieved by the precise combination of nitro, -CH₃, and triazole ring substituents. These findings are very important for the design of new, effective, and non-sensitive explosives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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Review

Jump to: Research

14 pages, 2241 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emulsion Explosives: A Tutorial Review and Highlight of Recent Progress

by Bartlomiej Kramarczyk, Krystyna Suda, Patrycja Kowalik, Kuba Swiatek, Katarzyna Jaszcz and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2022, 15(14), 4952; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15144952 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3580

Abstract

Emulsion explosives (EE) have been commercially available in various forms for over 50 years. Over this period, the popularity and production technology of this class of energetic materials have been developing constantly. Despite this rapid rise to prominence and, in some applications, prevalence [...] Read more.

Emulsion explosives (EE) have been commercially available in various forms for over 50 years. Over this period, the popularity and production technology of this class of energetic materials have been developing constantly. Despite this rapid rise to prominence and, in some applications, prevalence over traditional energetic materials, remarkably little information is available on the physicochemical and energetic properties of these materials and factors affecting those properties. This work is dedicated to presenting the fundamental information relevant to the features, properties and applications of EEs, while highlighting the most significant recent progress pertaining to those materials. Particular emphasis has been given to providing information about the types, composition, modifications and detonation parameters of EEs, as well as to highlighting the less obvious, emerging applications of EEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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38 pages, 2975 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quo Vadis, Nanothermite? A Review of Recent Progress

by Mateusz Polis, Agnieszka Stolarczyk, Karolina Glosz and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3215; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093215 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

One of the groups of pyrotechnic compositions is thermite compositions, so-called thermites, which consist of an oxidant, usually in the form of a metal oxide or salt, and a free metal, which is the fuel. A characteristic feature of termite combustion reactions, apart [...] Read more.

One of the groups of pyrotechnic compositions is thermite compositions, so-called thermites, which consist of an oxidant, usually in the form of a metal oxide or salt, and a free metal, which is the fuel. A characteristic feature of termite combustion reactions, apart from their extremely high exothermicity, is that they proceed, for the most part, in liquid and solid phases. Nanothermites are compositions, which include at least one component whose particles size is on the order of nanometers. The properties of nanothermites, such as high linear burning velocities, high reaction heats, high sensitivity to stimuli, low ignition temperature, ability to create hybrid compositions with other high-energy materials allow for a wide range of applications. Among the applications of nanothermites, one should mention igniters, detonators, microdetonators, micromotors, detectors, elements of detonation chain or elements allowing self-destruction of systems (e.g., microchips). The aim of this work is to discuss the preparation methods, research methods, direction of the future development, eventual challenges or problems and to highlight the applications and emerging novel avenues of use of these compositions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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18 pages, 4053 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Problems of Additive Manufacturing of Nanostructured High-Energy Materials

by Olga Kudryashova, Marat Lerner, Alexander Vorozhtsov, Sergei Sokolov and Vladimir Promakhov

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7394; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237394 - 2 Dec 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3533

Abstract

This article dwells upon the additive manufacturing of high-energy materials (HEM) with regards to the problems of this technology’s development. This work is aimed at identifying and describing the main problems currently arising in the use of AM for nanostructured high-energy materials and [...] Read more.

This article dwells upon the additive manufacturing of high-energy materials (HEM) with regards to the problems of this technology’s development. This work is aimed at identifying and describing the main problems currently arising in the use of AM for nanostructured high-energy materials and gives an idea of the valuable opportunities that it provides in the hope of promoting further development in this area. Original approaches are proposed for solving one of the main problems in the production of nanostructured HEM—safety and viscosity reduction of the polymer-nanopowder system. Studies have shown an almost complete degree of deagglomeration of microencapsulated aluminum powders. Such powders have the potential to create new systems for safe 3D printing using high-energy materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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17 pages, 2948 KiB

Open AccessReview

Solid Propellant Formulations: A Review of Recent Progress and Utilized Components

by Kinga Lysien, Agnieszka Stolarczyk and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6657; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216657 - 4 Nov 2021

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 8111

Abstract

The latest developments in solid propellants and their components are summarized. Particular attention is given to emerging energetic binders and novel, ‘green’ oxidizing agents and their use in propellant formulations. A brief overview of the latest reports on fuel additives is included. Finally, [...] Read more.

The latest developments in solid propellants and their components are summarized. Particular attention is given to emerging energetic binders and novel, ‘green’ oxidizing agents and their use in propellant formulations. A brief overview of the latest reports on fuel additives is included. Finally, a summary of the state of the art and challenges in its development are speculated on. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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12 pages, 1667 KiB

Open AccessReview

Improving ANFO: Effect of Additives and Ammonium Nitrate Morphology on Detonation Parameters

by Magdalena Fabin and Tomasz Jarosz

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5745; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195745 - 1 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4595

Abstract

Ammonium nitrate–fuel oil (ANFO) is one of the most widely used explosives for civilian purposes. Its main advantages are its low price and simple method of production. The main disadvantages of this material are low water resistance and problems related to non-ideal detonation, [...] Read more.

Ammonium nitrate–fuel oil (ANFO) is one of the most widely used explosives for civilian purposes. Its main advantages are its low price and simple method of production. The main disadvantages of this material are low water resistance and problems related to non-ideal detonation, which can be a potential hazard when using ANFO. Due to this, research has been conducted for many years to find suitable additives for ANFO that would have the effect of offsetting its drawbacks. The aim of this review was to describe factors affecting the energetic properties of ANFO, including the highlighting of substances that could potentially be additives to ANFO formulations that would reduce the negative effects of non-ideal detonation, while avoiding adversely impacting the effectiveness of the explosive in blasting operations, as well as its sensitivity parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication, Characterization and Application of High-Energy Material)

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