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Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 August 2022) | Viewed by 22462

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Dr. Marijana Serdar

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Guest Editor

Department of Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zagreb, Kaciceva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: low CO₂ cementitious materials; alternative binders; reactivity of materials; hydration; durability; concrete; performance-based design for durability; service life; sustainability; microstructure; corrosion; carbonation; behaviour of materials in aggressive environment; combined environmental loading; advance testing of construction materials; automation in construction

Dr. Guang Ye

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, 2628CN Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: concrete modelling; materials behavior; alternative binders and wastes to resources
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With all the challenges currently facing our society, it is clearer than ever that sustainable development is the only acceptable option. This is particularly evident in the construction industry, where enormous amounts of materials are consumed worldwide every day. We are aware that the use of natural resources is a luxury we have taken for granted for far too long. The depletion of natural resources, the unavailability of raw material streams, the dependence on certain material sources and the economic uncertainty that comes with it are forcing the construction industry to look for alternative raw materials beyond nature's virgins. At the same time, uncontrolled landfilling and generation of by-products are burdening several other industries. These two challenges are bringing by-products and recycled materials into the spotlight. The use of existing end-of-life materials or by-products of other activities is currently a must, and making the leap from research to industrial application is of utmost importance.

Nowadays, research has proven that specific properties of by-products and recycled materials can be used in the construction industry; by-products and recycled materials can be tailored for a specific purpose and add value to the final products. In concrete science, we have realised that the change from natural to recycled materials can be made without compromising the technical performance of the end products. Ultimately, this leads to a paradigm shift where by-products and end-of-life materials are not seen as waste, but as attractive raw material streams. At the same time, we have reached a point where insignificant substitutions of raw materials are simply no longer sufficient to achieve a more significant ecological effect. We need to push the boundaries of substitution levels, go beyond the most common raw material candidates, and be more creative with potential applications. This is only possible through a comprehensive understanding of raw materials and their influence in different concrete composites.

The aim of this Special Issue is to cover the latest research in the utilisation of recycled materials and by-products in concrete. The focus is on the characterization of raw materials (both recycled and by-products), reactivity, pre-treatment process on improving the reactivity, recycling technologies, synergies between different materials, nano-, micro- and macro-level properties, and final building products and cementitious composites. Although this field has flourished in recent decades, we will particularly welcome innovative approaches, novel alternative materials, cost-benefit and life-cycle analyses, and mature scientific results of interest to academia and industry. Applications of by-products and recycled materials in technologies such as 3D printing, alkali-activated materials, self-healing, self-monitoring, historical repairs, etc. will be particularly encouraged.

With this collection, it is our endeavour to stimulate and disseminate the latest knowledge on by-products and recycled materials in concrete and promote available technologies for urgent application in industry and current practise. We hope that this Special Issue will become a source of new ideas on the various topics for both early-stage researchers and leading experts in the field.

Prof. Marijana Serdar
Prof. Guang Ye
Guest Editors

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Keywords

by-products
recycled materials
alterative binder
reactivity
pre-treatment
mix design
construction building materials
raw materials
waste streams
industrial symbiosis
natural resources
recycled aggregate
recycled fibres
case studies
life-cycle analysis
cost benefit analysis
alkali-activated materials
high-volume cement substitutions
limestone clay clinker
calcium sulphate/aluminate cements
microstructure
self-healing materials
self-monitoring
3D printing

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 2974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction Models for Estimating Compressive Strength of Concrete Made of Manufactured Sand Using Gene Expression Programming Model

by Kaffayatullah Khan, Babatunde Abiodun Salami, Arshad Jamal, Muhammad Nasir Amin, Muhammad Usman, Majdi Adel Al-Faiad, Abdullah M. Abu-Arab and Mudassir Iqbal

Materials 2022, 15(17), 5823; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175823 - 24 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2013

Abstract

The depletion of natural resources of river sand and its availability issues as a construction material compelled the researchers to use manufactured sand. This study investigates the compressive strength of concrete made of manufactured sand as a partial replacement of normal sand. The prediction model, i.e., gene expression programming (GEP), was used to estimate the compressive strength of manufactured sand concrete (MSC). A database comprising 275 experimental results based on 11 input variables and 1 target variable was used to train and validate the developed models. For this purpose, the compressive strength of cement, tensile strength of cement, curing age, D_max of crushed stone, stone powder content, fineness modulus of the sand, water-to-binder ratio, water-to-cement ratio, water content, sand ratio, and slump were taken as input variables. The investigation of a varying number of genetic characteristics, such as chromosomal number, head size, and gene number, resulted in the creation of 11 alternative models (M1-M11). The M5 model outperformed other created models for the training and testing stages, with values of (4.538, 3.216, 0.919) and (4.953, 3.348, 0.906), respectively, according to the results of the accuracy evaluation parameters root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R²). The R² and error indices values revealed that the experimental and projected findings are in extremely close agreement. The best model has 200 chromosomes, 8 head sizes, and 3 genes. The mathematical expression achieved from the GEP model revealed that six parameters, namely the compressive and tensile strength of cement, curing period, water–binder ratio, water–cement ratio, and stone powder content contributed effectively among the 11 input variables. The sensitivity analysis showed that water–cement ratio (46.22%), curing period (25.43%), and stone powder content (13.55%) were revealed as the most influential variables, in descending order. The sensitivity of the remaining variables was recorded as w/b (11.37%) > f_ce (2.35%) > f_ct (1.35%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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23 pages, 4569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ternary Blends for Self-Compacting Mortars Production Composed by Electric Arc Furnace Dust and Other Industrial by-Products

by Antonio López-Uceda, David Cantador-Fernández, Pedro Raposeiro Da Silva, Jorge de Brito, José María Fernández-Rodríguez and José Ramón Jiménez

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5347; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155347 - 3 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1523

Abstract

This study is framed within the circular economy model through the valorisation of industrial by-products. This research shows the results of producing self-compacting mortars (SCMs) with electric arc furnace dust (EAFD) and other industrial by-products such as fly ash, conforming (FA) or not conforming (NcFA), from coal-fired power plants, or recovery filler (RF) from hot-mix asphalt plants. Three batches of SCMs, each with one industrial-by product (FA, NcFA, or RF), and three levels of EAFD ratio incorporation (0%, 10%, 20%), were tested. An extra batch with a greater amount of FA was manufactured. When the incorporation ratio of EAFD rose, the mechanical strength decreased, due to the presence of a calcium zinc hydroxide dihydrate phase; nevertheless, this decrease diminished over time. All SCM mixes, except the 40C 40FA 20 EAFD mix, were above 20 MPa at 28 days. All mixes named 70C and 40C reached 40 and 30 MPa, respectively, at 90 days. Mixes with EAFD showed less capillarity and no difference in water absorption by immersion with respect to mixes without EAFD after 91 days. The SCMs designed proved to be stable in terms of leaching of the heavy metals contained in EAFD, where all the hardened SCMs were classified as inert. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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24 pages, 3817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design of Ferronickel Slag Alkali-Activated Material for High Thermal Load Applications Developed by Design of Experiment

by Andres Arce, Anastasija Komkova, Jorn Van De Sande, Catherine G. Papanicolaou and Thanasis C. Triantafillou

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4379; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134379 - 21 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1781

Abstract

The development of an optimal low-calcium alkali-activated binder for high-temperature stability based on ferronickel slag, silica fume, potassium hydroxide, and potassium silicate was investigated based on Mixture Design of Experiment (Mixture DOE). Mass loss, shrinkage/expansion, and compressive and flexural strengths before and after exposure to a high thermal load (900 °C for two hours) were selected as performance markers. Chemical activator minimization was considered in the selection of the optimal mix to reduce CO₂ emissions. Unheated 42-day compressive strength was found to be as high as 99.6 MPa whereas the 42-day residual compressive strength after exposure to the high temperature reached 35 MPa (results pertaining to different mixes). Similarly, the maximum unheated 42-day flexural strength achieved was 8.8 MPa, and the maximum residual flexural strength after extreme temperature exposure was 2.5 MPa. The binder showed comparable properties to other alkali-activated ones already studied and a superior thermal performance when compared to Ordinary Portland Cement. A quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis was performed on selected hardened mixes, and fayalite was found to be an important component in the optimal formulation. A life-cycle analysis was performed to study the CO₂ savings, which corresponded to 55% for economic allocation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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17 pages, 6430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of Waste Marble Sludge for Repressing Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete with Reactive Aggregates

by Ali Ahmed, Safeer Abbas, Wasim Abbass, Ayesha Waheed, Afia Razzaq, Elimam Ali and Ahmed Farouk Deifalla

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3962; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113962 - 2 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1629

Abstract

The continuous development of the marble industry has led to an increase in the accumulation of waste marble sludge causing landfilling and health-associated issues. The intention of the current study is to explore the potential of waste marble sludge powder (MS) utilization as a means of controlling alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete. Specimen (cubes, prisms, and mortar bars) were prepared to incorporate reactive aggregates and various proportions of MS ranging from 5% to 40% as a replacement for aggregates. Expansion and mechanical strength characteristics were determined to investigate the effectiveness of MS to control ASRfor up to 150 days. Results revealed that on replacing aggregates in the control specimen with 25% MS, the ASR expansion at 14 days reduced from 0.23% to 0.17%, and the expansion at 28 days reduced from 0.28% to 0.17% which is within limits as per American Standard for Testing of Materials (ASTM) C1260. Furthermore, specimens incorporating MS exhibited improved compressive and flexural strength as compared to the identical specimen without MS. Microstructural analysis using Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed micro-cracks in the control specimen while the specimen incorporating MS was found intact. Thus, it can be foreseen that the use of MS as a partial replacement of aggregates can control ASR in concrete as well as reduce the dumping and harmful emissions issue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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21 pages, 6126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycled Untreated Rubber Waste for Controlling the Alkali–Silica Reaction in Concrete

by Safeer Abbas, Ali Ahmed, Ayesha Waheed, Wasim Abbass, Muhammad Yousaf, Sbahat Shaukat, Hisham Alabduljabbar and Youssef Ahmed Awad

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3584; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103584 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2205

Abstract

Recycled rubber waste (RW) is produced at an alarming rate due to the deposition of 1.5 billion scrap tires annually around the globe, which causes serious threats to the environment due to its open land filling issues. This study investigates the potential application of RW in concrete structures for mitigating the alkali–silica reaction (ASR). Various proportions of RW (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%) partially replaced the used aggregates. RW was procured from a local rubber recycling unit. Cubes, prisms, and mortar bar specimens were prepared using a mixture design recommended by ASTM C1260 and tested for evaluating the compressive and flexural strengths and expansion in an ASR conducive environment for specimens incorporating RW. It was observed that the compressive and flexural strength decreased for specimens incorporating RW compared to that of the control specimens without RW. For example, an 18% and an 8% decrease in compressive and flexural strengths, respectively, were observed for specimens with 5% of RW by aggregates volume at 28 days. Mortar bar specimens without RW showed an expansion of 0.23% and 0.28% at 14 and 28 days, respectively, indicating the potential ASR reactivity in accordance with ASTM C1260. A decrease in expansion was observed for mixtures incorporating RW. Specimens incorporating 20% of RW by aggregate volume showed expansions of 0.17% at 28 days, within the limit specified by ASTM C1260. Moreover, specimens incorporating RW showed a lower reduction in compressive and flexural strengths under an ASR conducive environment compared to that of the control specimen without RW. Micro-structural analysis also showed significant micro-cracking for specimens without RW due to ASR. However, no surface cracks were observed for specimens incorporating RW. It can be argued that the use of RW in the construction industry assists in reducing the landfill depositing issues with the additional benefit of limiting the ASR expansion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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21 pages, 4469 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantification of the Hardened Cement Paste Content in Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregates by Means of Salicylic Acid Dissolution

by Zengfeng Zhao, Jianzhuang Xiao, Denis Damidot, Sébastien Rémond, David Bulteel and Luc Courard

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3384; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093384 - 9 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2285

Abstract

Adherent hardened cement paste attached to recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) generally presents a higher porosity than natural aggregates, which induces a lower porosity in the properties of RCA. The characterization of the adherent hardened cement paste content (HCPC) in the fine RCA would promote better applications of RCA in concrete, but the determination of HCPC in fine RCA is not well established. A simple method based on salicylic acid dissolution was specifically developed to quantify the HCPC in RCA, especially for RCA containing limestone aggregates. The results demonstrated that the soluble fraction in salicylic acid (SFSA) was equal to the HCPC for white cement and slightly lower for grey Portland cement, which was also confirmed by a theoretical approach using modelling the hydration of cement paste with the chemical equations and the stoichiometric ratios. The physical and mechanical properties of RCA (e.g., water absorption) were strongly correlated to the SFSA. For industrial RCA, SFSA did not give the exact value of HCPC, but it was sufficient to correlate HCPC with the other properties of RCA. The water absorption could be estimated with good accuracy for very fine RCA (laboratory-manufactured RCA or industrial RCA) by extrapolating the relationship between water absorption and HCPC, which is very important for concrete formulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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15 pages, 5484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution to Understanding of Synergy between Red Mud and Common Supplementary Cementitious Materials

by Ivana Vladić Kancir and Marijana Serdar

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051968 - 7 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4039

Abstract

Recently, much attention has been paid to the reuse of bauxite residues from alumina production, also known as red mud, in the cement industry. Red mud bears the potential to improve concrete properties due to its favourable chemical composition and particle size. In this work, the synergy between locally available red mud and common supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, slag, calcined clay and limestone in cement mixes is investigated. All materials used were sourced from the immediate vicinity of the cement plant. The study of synergy involved the evaluation of the individual chemical reactivity of each material using the R3 test by isothermal calorimetry as well as their joint contribution to the heat of hydration and the composition of the reaction products of the paste and the compressive strength of the mortar. The results show how, by understanding the synergy between the materials, a higher level of cement substitutions can be achieved without compromising the mechanical properties of the mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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15 pages, 4068 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Durability of Mortar Containing Alkali Activated Fly Ash-Based Lightweight Aggregate

by Puput Risdanareni, Philip Van den Heede, Jianyun Wang and Nele De Belie

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3741; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14133741 - 4 Jul 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2752

Abstract

Beneficiating fly ash as valuable construction material such as artificial lightweight aggregate (LWA) could be an alternative solution to increase the utilization of the industrial by-product. However, generally, LWA is characterized by high porosity and a related high water absorption, which on the one hand allows production of lightweight mortar, but on the other hand can affect its performance. Thus, in this research, the durability performance of mortar composed with alkali-activated fly ash-based LWA, and commercial expanded clay (EC) LWA was investigated. The fly ash LWA was prepared in a pan granulator, with a 6-molar solution of NaOH mixed with Na₂SiO₃ in a Na₂SiO₃/NaOH weight ratio of 1.5 being used as activator (FA 6M LWA). The results revealed that mortar containing FA 6M LWA had equivalent mechanical strength with mortar containing EC LWA. The mortar containing FA 6M LWA had comparable capillary water uptake and chloride migration resistance with the reference and EC LWA mortar. Furthermore, the addition of FA 6M LWA was proven to enhance the carbonation resistance in the resulting mortar, due to the denser interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of mortar with LWA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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22 pages, 8923 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of Using Wood Biomass Ash in Low-Strength Composites

by Ana Baričević, Ivana Carević, Jelena Šantek Bajto, Nina Štirmer, Marija Bezinović and Keti Kristović

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1250; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051250 - 6 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3099

Abstract

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels is the cornerstone of all European climate and energy strategies. Consequently, renewable energy sources are becoming more competitive with fossil fuels. The largest source of bioenergy in the European Union is biomass-fired power plants. Therefore, the European coal phase-out strategy led to an increased use of wood biomass as a sustainable fuel, generating large amounts of wood biomass ash (WBA). In the research studies reported so far, WBA has been mainly used in cementitious composites. However, given the similarities between the chemical composition of WBA and hydraulic lime (HL), this research focused on its potential classification as a building lime. Overall, three different sources of fly WBA were considered for the preparation of binders as mixtures of WBA and coal fly ash (CFA) in different ratios. The contribution of each binder mixture on the paste and mortar properties was analyzed based on the chemical composition, setting time, volume stability, and contribution to the mortar strength (compressive and flexural). In general, it can be concluded that the studied binders can meet the criteria of EN 459-1. However, special attention should be paid to the volume deformations and the setting time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Utilisation of Recycled Materials and By-Products in Concrete)

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