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Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants

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A special issue of Plants (ISSN 2223-7747). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 23279

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Dr. Ferenc Fodor

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Department of Plant Physiology and Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter stny. 1/C, 1117 Budapest, Hungary
Interests: plant nutrition; heavy metals; iron; plant stress; ionomics; energy plants; nanomaterials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Iron is one of the most important micronutrients for plants but also for all living things. It is a relatively abundant element in the Earth’s crust but its availability for plants is highly restricted due to its insolubility in a range of slightly acidic to alkaline pH in its oxidised, ferric ion form. Insufficient iron supply leads to iron deficiency and chlorosis which reduces growth, productivity and crop yield. For this, reason plants have evolved two major strategies to take up iron from the soil: reduction-based Strategy I (aided by root-born mobilizing and/or reducing shuttle compounds) and chelationbased Strategy II, which were postulated in the 1980s. Ever since, a large amount of knowledge has been collected concerning the functioning of the two strategies: the high-affinity transport systems of both strategies, their localization and regulation. Transport systems for iron trafficking within plants and within cells have also been studied in detail. The utilization, reutilization and storage of iron is a very important issue concerning the biofortification to produce edible plant products containing a higher amount of bioavailable iron which would help reducing the global occurrence of anaemia. To improve plant iron content, not only new iron chelates and complexes are being formulated, but also breeding and genetic engineering is applied. Furthermore, the above issues are amplified by the current threats such as global warming, climatic extremities, environmental contamination, etc. Thus, iron nutrition and its interactions in plants is a very lively and exciting field of science.

The general concept of this Special Issue is to provide an up-to-date overview in the biochemical interactions of iron nutrition in plants. In particular, submissions of reviews and original research articles reporting novel scientific findings on the following topics are welcome (not an exhaustive list):

Improving Fe availability in soils;
Regulation of Fe uptake;
Plant responses to Fe deficiency;
Regulation of Fe homeostasis;
Iron biofortification;
Interaction of Fe with other elements;
Interactions with microorganisms;
Iron nutrition under stress conditions (e.g. salinity);
Iron nutrition and climatic change.

Dr. Ferenc Fodor
Guest Editor

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Keywords

iron nutrition
iron deficiency
iron fertilizers
iron homeostasis
microbial interactions
biofortification
ionomics
climate change

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Iron Nutrition and Its Biochemical Interactions in Plants: Iron Uptake, Biofortification, Bacteria, and Fungi in Focus

by Ferenc Fodor

Plants 2024, 13(5), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13050561 - 20 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1506

Abstract

Microelements are vital for plant growth and development [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

11 pages, 276 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Application of Salicylic Acid Derivative in Modifying the Iron Nutritional Value of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.)

by Barbara Frąszczak, Renata Matysiak, Marcin Smiglak, Rafal Kukawka, Maciej Spychalski and Tomasz Kleiber

Plants 2024, 13(2), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13020180 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1179

Abstract

The present experiment addressed the effects of foliar sprays of different iron (Fe) concentrations (mg L⁻¹), i.e., 2.8 (Fe I), 4.2 (Fe II), and 5.6 (Fe III), as well as an ionic derivative of salicylic acid (iSal) in two doses (10 and 20 mg L⁻¹) on lettuce yield, chlorophyll and carotenoids content, and fluorescence parameters. Chemicals were used individually and in combinations two times, 23 and 30 days after the plants were transplanted. This experiment was carried out in a climate chamber. The Fe and iSal applications generally (except Fe I iSal, 10 mg L⁻¹; Fe I iSal, 20 mg L⁻¹; and Fe III iSal, 20 mg L⁻¹) did not influence the fresh and dry matter content. The concentration of chlorophylls and carotenoids was reduced for all treatments in comparison to the control (without spraying). The Fe content in leaves was promoted in the Fe-treated plants (+70% for Fe III + iSal, 10 mg L⁻¹, and Fe I). The iSal treatment promoted the Mn content. For most combinations, the Zn and Cu accumulations, as well as the fluorescence parameters, decreased after the foliar spray applications. Overall, our study revealed the effectiveness of Fe-DTPA chelate, but not iSal, in increasing the Fe content of lettuce grown in soilless cultivation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

14 pages, 3461 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amino Acid Residues of the Metal Transporter OsNRAMP5 Responsible for Cadmium Absorption in Rice

by Zhengtong Qu and Hiromi Nakanishi

Plants 2023, 12(24), 4182; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12244182 - 16 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1362

Abstract

The transport of metals such as iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and cadmium (Cd) in rice is highly related. Although Fe and Mn are essential elements for plant growth, Cd is a toxic element for both plants and humans. OsNRAMP5—a member of the same family as the Fe, Mn, and Cd transporter OsNRAMP1—is responsible for the transport of Mn and Cd from soil in rice. Knockout of OsNRAMP5 markedly reduces both Cd and Mn absorption, and this OsNRAMP5 knockout is indispensable for the development of low-Cd rice. However, in low-Mn environments, such plants would exhibit Mn deficiency and suppressed growth. We generated random mutations in OsNRAMP5 via error-prone PCR, and used yeast to screen for the retention of Mn absorption and the inhibition of Cd absorption. The results showed that alanine 512th is the most important amino acid residue for Cd absorption and that its substitution resulted in the absorption of Mn but not Cd. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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19 pages, 1730 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of Siderophores Generated by Pseudomonas Bacteria and Their Possible Application as Fe Biofertilizers

by José María Lozano-González, Silvia Valverde, Mónica Montoya, Marta Martín, Rafael Rivilla, Juan J. Lucena and Sandra López-Rayo

Plants 2023, 12(23), 4054; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12234054 - 2 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2366

Abstract

The application of synthetic iron chelates to overcome iron deficiency in crops is leading to a high impact on the environment, making it necessary to find more friendly fertilizers. A promising alternative is the application of biodegradable iron chelates, such as those based on siderophores. In the present work, seven bacterial strains of the genus Pseudomonas were selected for their ability to secrete pyoverdine, a siderophore with a high affinity for iron, which could be used as a biofertilizer. The concentration of siderophores secreted by each bacterium expressed as desferrioxamine B equivalents, and the pyoverdine concentration was determined. Their potential as Fe biofertilizers was determined based on their capacity to complex Fe, determining the maximum iron complexation capacity at alkaline pH and selecting the RMC4 strain. The biostimulant capacity of the RMC4 strain was evaluated through the secretion of organic acids such as the hormone Indol-3-acetic acid or glutamic acid, among others, in a kinetic assay. Finally, the genome of RMC4 was determined, and the strain was identified as Pseudomonas monsensis. The annotated genome was screened for genes and gene clusters implicated in biofertilization and plant growth promotion. Besides iron mobilization, genes related to phosphorus solubilization, production of phytohormones and biological control, among others, were observed, indicating the suitability of RMC4 as an inoculant. In conclusion, RMC4 and its siderophores are promising sources for Fe biofertilization in agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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16 pages, 3928 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

MsYSL6, A Metal Transporter Gene of Alfalfa, Increases Iron Accumulation and Benefits Cadmium Resistance

by Miao Zhang, Meng-Han Chang, Hong Li, Yong-Jun Shu, Yan Bai, Jing-Yun Gao, Jing-Xuan Zhu, Xiao-Yu Dong, Dong-Lin Guo and Chang-Hong Guo

Plants 2023, 12(19), 3485; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12193485 - 5 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1769

Abstract

Iron (Fe) is necessary for plant growth and development. The mechanism of uptake and translocation in Cadmium (Cd) is similar to iron, which shares iron transporters. Yellow stripe-like transporter (YSL) plays a pivotal role in transporting iron and other metal ions in plants. In this study, MsYSL6 and its promoter were cloned from leguminous forage alfalfa. The transient expression of MsYSL6-GFP indicated that MsYSL6 was localized to the plasma membrane and cytoplasm. The expression of MsYSL6 was induced in alfalfa by iron deficiency and Cd stress, which was further proved by GUS activity driven by the MsYSL6 promoter. To further identify the function of MsYSL6, it was heterologously overexpressed in tobacco. MsYSL6-overexpressed tobacco showed better growth and less oxidative damage than WT under Cd stress. MsYSL6 overexpression elevated Fe and Cd contents and induced a relatively high Fe translocation rate in tobacco under Cd stress. The results suggest that MsYSL6 might have a dual function in the absorption of Fe and Cd, playing a role in the competitive absorption between Fe and Cd. MsYSL6 might be a regulatory factor in plants to counter Cd stress. This study provides a novel gene for application in heavy metal enrichment or phytoremediation and new insights into plant tolerance to toxic metals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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16 pages, 3856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Nonpathogenic Strain Fusarium oxysporum FO12 on Fe Acquisition in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Plants

by Jorge Núñez-Cano, Francisco J. Romera, Pilar Prieto, María J. García, Jesús Sevillano-Caño, Carlos Agustí-Brisach, Rafael Pérez-Vicente, José Ramos and Carlos Lucena

Plants 2023, 12(17), 3145; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173145 - 31 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1299

Abstract

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a very important cereal worldwide, since it is the staple food for more than half of the world’s population. Iron (Fe) deficiency is among the most important agronomical concerns in calcareous soils where rice plants may suffer from this deficiency. Current production systems are based on the use of high-yielding varieties and the application of large quantities of agrochemicals, which can cause major environmental problems. The use of beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms is considered a relevant sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers. The main goal of this study was to determine the ability of the nonpathogenic strain Fusarium oxysporum FO12 to induce Fe-deficiency responses in rice plants and its effects on plant growth and Fe chlorosis. Experiments were carried out under hydroponic system conditions. Our results show that the root inoculation of rice plants with FO12 promotes the production of phytosiderophores and plant growth while reducing Fe chlorosis symptoms after several days of cultivation. Moreover, Fe-related genes are upregulated by FO12 at certain times in inoculated plants regardless of Fe conditions. This microorganism also colonizes root cortical tissues. In conclusion, FO12 enhances Fe-deficiency responses in rice plants, achieves growth promotion, and reduces Fe chlorosis symptoms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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16 pages, 2522 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coated Hematite Nanoparticles Alleviate Iron Deficiency in Cucumber in Acidic Nutrient Solution and as Foliar Spray

by Amarjeet Singh, Fruzsina Pankaczi, Deepali Rana, Zoltán May, Gyula Tolnai and Ferenc Fodor

Plants 2023, 12(17), 3104; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173104 - 29 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1479

Abstract

Micronutrient iron (Fe) deficiency poses a widespread agricultural challenge with global implications. Fe deficiency affects plant growth and immune function, leading to reduced yields and contributing to the global “hidden hunger.” While conventional Fe-based fertilizers are available, their efficacy is limited under certain conditions. Most recently, nanofertilizers have been shown as promising alternatives to conventional fertilizers. In this study, three nanohematite/nanoferrihydrite preparations (NHs) with different coatings were applied through the roots and shoots to Fe-deficient cucumber plants. To enhance Fe mobilization to leaves during foliar treatment, the plants were pre-treated with various acids (citric acid, ascorbic acid, and glycine) at a concentration of 0.5 mM. Multiple physiological parameters were examined, revealing that both root and foliar treatments resulted in improved chlorophyll content, biomass, photosynthetic parameters, and reduced ferric chelate reductase activity. The plants also significantly accumulated Fe in their developing leaves and its distribution after NHs treatment, detected by X-ray fluorescence mapping, implied long-distance mobilization in their veins. These findings suggest that the applied NHs effectively mitigated Fe deficiency in cucumber plants through both modes of application, highlighting their potential as nanofertilizers on a larger scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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19 pages, 3527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Barley Cultivar Sarab 1 Has a Characteristic Region on the Thylakoid Membrane That Protects Photosystem I under Iron-Deficient Conditions

by Akihiro Saito, Kimika Hoshi, Yuna Wakabayashi, Takumi Togashi, Tomoki Shigematsu, Maya Katori, Takuji Ohyama and Kyoko Higuchi

Plants 2023, 12(11), 2111; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12112111 - 26 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1476

Abstract

The barley cultivar Sarab 1 (SRB1) can continue photosynthesis despite its low Fe acquisition potential via roots and dramatically reduced amounts of photosystem I (PSI) reaction-center proteins under Fe-deficient conditions. We compared the characteristics of photosynthetic electron transfer (ET), thylakoid ultrastructure, and Fe and protein distribution on thylakoid membranes among barley cultivars. The Fe-deficient SRB1 had a large proportion of functional PSI proteins by avoiding P700 over-reduction. An analysis of the thylakoid ultrastructure clarified that SRB1 had a larger proportion of non-appressed thylakoid membranes than those in another Fe-tolerant cultivar, Ehimehadaka-1 (EHM1). Separating thylakoids by differential centrifugation further revealed that the Fe-deficient SRB1 had increased amounts of low/light-density thylakoids with increased Fe and light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) than did EHM1. LHCII with uncommon localization probably prevents excessive ET from PSII leading to elevated NPQ and lower PSI photodamage in SRB1 than in EHM1, as supported by increased Y(NPQ) and Y(ND) in the Fe-deficient SRB1. Unlike this strategy, EHM1 may preferentially supply Fe cofactors to PSI, thereby exploiting more surplus reaction center proteins than SRB1 under Fe-deficient conditions. In summary, SRB1 and EHM1 support PSI through different mechanisms during Fe deficiency, suggesting that barley species have multiple strategies for acclimating photosynthetic apparatus to Fe deficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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23 pages, 12749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Growth Developmental Defects of Mitochondrial Iron Transporter 1 and 2 Mutants in Arabidopsis in Iron Sufficient Conditions

by Joaquín Vargas, Isabel Gómez, Elena A. Vidal, Chun Pong Lee, A. Harvey Millar, Xavier Jordana and Hannetz Roschzttardtz

Plants 2023, 12(5), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051176 - 4 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2331

Abstract

Iron is the most abundant micronutrient in plant mitochondria, and it has a crucial role in biochemical reactions involving electron transfer. It has been described in Oryza sativa that Mitochondrial Iron Transporter (MIT) is an essential gene and that knockdown mutant rice plants have a decreased amount of iron in their mitochondria, strongly suggesting that OsMIT is involved in mitochondrial iron uptake. In Arabidopsis thaliana, two genes encode MIT homologues. In this study, we analyzed different AtMIT1 and AtMIT2 mutant alleles, and no phenotypic defects were observed in individual mutant plants grown in normal conditions, confirming that neither AtMIT1 nor AtMIT2 are individually essential. When we generated crosses between the Atmit1 and Atmit2 alleles, we were able to isolate homozygous double mutant plants. Interestingly, homozygous double mutant plants were obtained only when mutant alleles of Atmit2 with the T-DNA insertion in the intron region were used for crossings, and in these cases, a correctly spliced AtMIT2 mRNA was generated, although at a low level. Atmit1 Atmit2 double homozygous mutant plants, knockout for AtMIT1 and knockdown for AtMIT2, were grown and characterized in iron-sufficient conditions. Pleiotropic developmental defects were observed, including abnormal seeds, an increased number of cotyledons, a slow growth rate, pinoid stems, defects in flower structures, and reduced seed set. A RNA-Seq study was performed, and we could identify more than 760 genes differentially expressed in Atmit1 Atmit2. Our results show that Atmit1 Atmit2 double homozygous mutant plants misregulate genes involved in iron transport, coumarin metabolism, hormone metabolism, root development, and stress-related response. The phenotypes observed, such as pinoid stems and fused cotyledons, in Atmit1 Atmit2 double homozygous mutant plants may suggest defects in auxin homeostasis. Unexpectedly, we observed a possible phenomenon of T-DNA suppression in the next generation of Atmit1 Atmit2 double homozygous mutant plants, correlating with increased splicing of the AtMIT2 intron containing the T-DNA and the suppression of the phenotypes observed in the first generation of the double mutant plants. In these plants with a suppressed phenotype, no differences were observed in the oxygen consumption rate of isolated mitochondria; however, the molecular analysis of gene expression markers, AOX1a, UPOX, and MSM1, for mitochondrial and oxidative stress showed that these plants express a degree of mitochondrial perturbation. Finally, we could establish by a targeted proteomic analysis that a protein level of 30% of MIT2, in the absence of MIT1, is enough for normal plant growth under iron-sufficient conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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Review

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16 pages, 750 KiB

Open AccessReview

Plant Iron Research in African Countries: Current “Hot Spots”, Approaches, and Potentialities

by Irene Murgia and Piero Morandini

Plants 2024, 13(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13010014 - 19 Dec 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1214

Abstract

Plant iron (Fe) nutrition and metabolism is a fascinating and challenging research topic; understanding the role of Fe in the life cycle of plants requires knowledge of Fe chemistry and biochemistry and their impact during development. Plant Fe nutritional status is dependent on several factors, including the surrounding biotic and abiotic environments, and influences crop yield and the nutritional quality of edible parts. The relevance of plant Fe research will further increase globally, particularly for Africa, which is expected to reach 2.5 billion people by 2050. The aim of this review is to provide an updated picture of plant Fe research conducted in African countries to favor its dissemination within the scientific community. Three main research hotspots have emerged, and all of them are related to the production of plants of superior quality, i.e., development of Fe-dense crops, development of varieties resilient to Fe toxicity, and alleviation of Fe deficiency, by means of Fe nanoparticles for sustainable agriculture. An intensification of research collaborations between the African research groups and plant Fe groups worldwide would be beneficial for the progression of the identified research topics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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12 pages, 947 KiB

Open AccessReview

Iron in the Symbiosis of Plants and Microorganisms

by Yi Liu, Zimo Xiong, Weifeng Wu, Hong-Qing Ling and Danyu Kong

Plants 2023, 12(10), 1958; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12101958 - 11 May 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2573

Abstract

Iron is an essential element for most organisms. Both plants and microorganisms have developed different mechanisms for iron uptake, transport and storage. In the symbiosis systems, such as rhizobia–legume symbiosis and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis, maintaining iron homeostasis to meet the requirements for the interaction between the host plants and the symbiotic microbes is a new challenge. This intriguing topic has drawn the attention of many botanists and microbiologists, and many discoveries have been achieved so far. In this review, we discuss the current progress on iron uptake and transport in the nodules and iron homeostasis in rhizobia–legume symbiosis. The discoveries with regard to iron uptake in AM fungi, iron uptake regulation in AM plants and interactions between iron and other nutrient elements during AM symbiosis are also summarized. At the end of this review, we propose prospects for future studies in this fascinating research area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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12 pages, 525 KiB

Open AccessReview

Understanding the Mechanisms of Fe Deficiency in the Rhizosphere to Promote Plant Resilience

by Zoltán Molnár, Wogene Solomon, Lamnganbi Mutum and Tibor Janda

Plants 2023, 12(10), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12101945 - 10 May 2023

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3395

Abstract

One of the most significant constraints on agricultural productivity is the low availability of iron (Fe) in soil, which is directly related to biological, physical, and chemical activities in the rhizosphere. The rhizosphere has a high iron requirement due to plant absorption and microorganism density. Plant roots and microbes in the rhizosphere play a significant role in promoting plant iron (Fe) uptake, which impacts plant development and physiology by influencing nutritional, biochemical, and soil components. The concentration of iron accessible to these live organisms in most cultivated soil is quite low due to its solubility being limited by stable oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, and oxides. The dissolution and solubility rates of iron are also significantly affected by soil pH, microbial population, organic matter content, redox processes, and particle size of the soil. In Fe-limiting situations, plants and soil microbes have used active strategies such as acidification, chelation, and reduction, which have an important role to play in enhancing soil iron availability to plants. In response to iron deficiency, plant and soil organisms produce organic (carbohydrates, amino acids, organic acids, phytosiderophores, microbial siderophores, and phenolics) and inorganic (protons) chemicals in the rhizosphere to improve the solubility of poorly accessible Fe pools. The investigation of iron-mediated associations among plants and microorganisms influences plant development and health, providing a distinctive prospect to further our understanding of rhizosphere ecology and iron dynamics. This review clarifies current knowledge of the intricate dynamics of iron with the end goal of presenting an overview of the rhizosphere mechanisms that are involved in the uptake of iron by plants and microorganisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochemical Interactions of Iron Nutrition in Plants)

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