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19 pages, 3160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dielectric Measurement Based Deducted Quantities to Track Repetitive, Short-Term Thermal Aging of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Cable Insulation

by Gergely Márk Csányi, Semih Bal and Zoltán Ádám Tamus

Polymers 2020, 12(12), 2809; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12122809 - 27 Nov 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3564

Abstract

The effect of short-term (3- and 6-h-long) periodic thermal aging was investigated at three different temperatures on PVC cables and PVC films. Three different temperatures (110, 125, and 140 °C) were used for aging PVC cables and one (110 °C) for PVC films. [...] Read more.

The effect of short-term (3- and 6-h-long) periodic thermal aging was investigated at three different temperatures on PVC cables and PVC films. Three different temperatures (110, 125, and 140 °C) were used for aging PVC cables and one (110 °C) for PVC films. PVC films were prepared for the investigation containing 0, 30, 40, and 50 weight percent of dioctyl phthalate plasticizer (DOP). The effect of short-term thermal aging was monitored by electrical (dielectric spectrum and voltage response measurement) and mechanical (Shore D hardness) methods. From the loss factor measurements, different deducted quantities were calculated and compared with Shore D hardness, which has been shown to be a parameter reflecting the effect of short-term thermal aging on PVC insulation. The measurements revealed that Shore D hardness is not the best property for monitoring aging. Instead, increasing dissipated power and the shifting behavior of tan δ–frequency curves proved to be the best phenomena for assessing the impact of thermal aging. Simple deducted quantities may provide a basis for following short-term thermal aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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23 pages, 3545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aging Effects of Aqueous Environment on Mechanical Properties of Calcium Carbonate-Modified Epoxy Resin

by Anna Rudawska and Mariaenrica Frigione

Polymers 2020, 12(11), 2541; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112541 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 2539

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of different aqueous environments (i.e., demineralised, distilled and spring water) on the mechanical properties of a cold-cured bisphenolic epoxy resin modified with the addition of calcium carbonate filler, typically employed as structural adhesive. [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of different aqueous environments (i.e., demineralised, distilled and spring water) on the mechanical properties of a cold-cured bisphenolic epoxy resin modified with the addition of calcium carbonate filler, typically employed as structural adhesive. The parameters selected for the analysis have been; the kind of curing agent employed to cure the epoxy resin at ambient temperature (i.e., Mannich base and triethylenetetramine); the load of calcium carbonate added to liquid epoxy (i.e., from 1 to 3 g per 100 g of resin) and; the duration of the exposure to the different aging conditions (i.e., from 1 to 10 months). Cylindrical specimens of calcium carbonate-modified epoxy systems were tested in compression mode, before and after each of the aging regimes. The effect of the selected curing agents is very small, and they are both suitable for a cure at ambient temperature, on the unfilled epoxy on compressive maximum strength and strain at break; the choice of the hardener affects instead the compressive modulus. The CaCO3 amount was demonstrated to have a significant effect on the mechanical characteristics of un-aged epoxy systems, leading to growth in compressive modulus and maximum strength with reductions in strain at break. Generally speaking, the aging time noticeably affects the compressive properties of calcium carbonate-modified epoxies while almost negligible is the kind of water employed in each exposure regime. Notwithstanding the adverse effects of an aqueous environment on compressive mechanical properties of CaCO₃-filled epoxies, these systems keep compressive modulus and maximum strength greater than, and close to, respectively, the same characteristics measured on unaged unfilled control epoxies, demonstrating the positive effect of the addition of this kind of filler to epoxy-based structural adhesives, especially with the addition of 2 and 3 g of CaCO₃ per 100 g resin. The results obtained in this study demonstrated that it is possible to contrast the detrimental effects observed in cold-cured epoxy-based structural adhesives due to their aging in water upon the addition of limited amounts (particularly at 2 and 3 g per 100 g resin) of a cheap CaCO₃ filler. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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21 pages, 3138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability-Based Evaluation of the Suitability of Polymers for Additive Manufacturing Intended for Extreme Operating Conditions

by Alvaro Rodríguez-Prieto, Ernesto Primera, Manuel Callejas and Ana M. Camacho

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2327; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102327 - 12 Oct 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2889

Abstract

A reliability engineering program must be implemented from the conceptual phase of the physical asset to define the performance requirements of the components and equipment. Thus, in this work, the aim is to find the most optimal solution to manufacture polymer-based parts for [...] Read more.

A reliability engineering program must be implemented from the conceptual phase of the physical asset to define the performance requirements of the components and equipment. Thus, in this work, the aim is to find the most optimal solution to manufacture polymer-based parts for the nuclear power industry using additive manufacturing routes. This case study application has been selected because polymers processed by additive manufacturing (AM) can be well suited for nuclear applications. The methodology includes—firstly—an analysis of the suitability of materials based on high-temperature resistance, thermal aging and irradiation tolerance, considering operation conditions. Secondly, an analysis of materials’ processability considering their associated AM routes is performed based on thermal analysis and evaluation of physical properties of materials. A final assessment integrating the in-service suitability and AM processability is performed using a reliability approach, solving different emerging objective conflicts through defined constraints and selection criteria. According to the integrated in-service performance evaluation: Polypropylene-ethylene polyallomer (PPP), Epoxy (EP), Phenolics (Ph), Polyurethane (PU) and Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) are the best options for mild operation conditions and EP, Ph and PU, considering high temperature along with radiation exposure. Considering AM techniques: EP and Ph can be manufactured using VAT photopolymerization-stereolithography (VP-SLA) with a good expected processability being these materials valid for high temperature environments. Consequently, this research work analyzes the viability, processability and in-service behavior of parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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24 pages, 5199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Long-Term Stability of Historical PMMA: Impact of Additives and Acrylic Sheet Industrial Production Processes

by Sara Babo, Joana Lia Ferreira, Ana Maria Ramos, Anna Micheluz, Marisa Pamplona, Maria Helena Casimiro, Luís M. Ferreira and Maria João Melo

Polymers 2020, 12(10), 2198; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12102198 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7170 | Correction

Abstract

This work aims at understanding the influence of the production processes and materials in the properties and long term behavior of acrylic sheet, i.e., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), a material generally considered very stable in museum collections. A comparative study was conducted in samples [...] Read more.

This work aims at understanding the influence of the production processes and materials in the properties and long term behavior of acrylic sheet, i.e., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), a material generally considered very stable in museum collections. A comparative study was conducted in samples from cast acrylic sheets produced in the early 2000s, from which manufacturing details were known, and samples provided by the artist Lourdes Castro from acrylic sheets she had bought in the 1960s. Transparent and red opaque cast acrylic samples, containing cadmium red pigment, were used. All samples were artificially aged in a solarbox with irradiation λ > 300 nm for a total period of 8000 h, and alterations were followed by a multi-analytical approach which included Raman, infrared (FTIR-ATR) and UV-Vis spectroscopies; gravimetry; size exclusion chromatography (SEC); thermogravimetry (TGA); micro-indentation; colorimetry; and optical microscopy. Not all cast PMMA sheets presented similar stabilities. We have concluded that the production processes (which may include the polymerization conditions, the organic additives and the origin of the monomer) play a more important role in the properties and long-term behavior of these acrylic sheets than the presence of cadmium red and/or the age of the material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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21 pages, 5003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Erroneous or Arrhenius: A Degradation Rate-Based Model for EPDM during Homogeneous Ageing

by Maha Zaghdoudi, Anja Kömmling, Matthias Jaunich and Dietmar Wolff

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 2152; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12092152 - 21 Sep 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5011

Abstract

To improve the predictive capability of long-term stress relaxation of elastomers during thermo-oxidative ageing, a method to separate reversible and irreversible processes was adopted. The separation is performed through the analysis of compression set after tempering. On the basis of this separation, a [...] Read more.

To improve the predictive capability of long-term stress relaxation of elastomers during thermo-oxidative ageing, a method to separate reversible and irreversible processes was adopted. The separation is performed through the analysis of compression set after tempering. On the basis of this separation, a numerical model for long-term stress relaxation during homogeneous ageing is proposed. The model consists of an additive contribution of physical and chemical relaxation. Computer simulations of compression stress relaxation were performed for long ageing times and the results were validated with the Arrhenius treatment, the kinetic study and the time-temperature superposition technique based on experimental data. For chemical relaxation, two decay functions are introduced each with an activation energy and a degradative process. The first process with the lower activation energy dominates at lower ageing times, while the second one with the higher activation energy at longer ageing times. A degradation-rate based model for the evolution of each process and its contribution to the total system during homogeneous ageing is proposed. The main advantage of the model is the possibility to quickly validate the interpolation at lower temperatures within the range of slower chemical processes without forcing a straight-line extrapolation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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16 pages, 3097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Studies and Modeling of the Degradation Process of Poly(Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid) Microspheres for Sustained Protein Release

by Paolo Antonio Netti, Marco Biondi and Mariaenrica Frigione

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 2042; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12092042 - 8 Sep 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3387

Abstract

In this study, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres (PLGA MS)for controlled protein release by double emulsion-solvent evaporation were produced and characterized for their morphological and technological features. MS autocatalytic degradation was described by a mathematical model based on a Michaelis and Menten-like chemical [...] Read more.

In this study, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres (PLGA MS)for controlled protein release by double emulsion-solvent evaporation were produced and characterized for their morphological and technological features. MS autocatalytic degradation was described by a mathematical model based on a Michaelis and Menten-like chemical balance. Here, for the first time MS degradation was correlated to the advancement of MS degradation front with respect to the degraded radius, derived from mass loss experiments. The model can satisfactorily describe the kinetics of advancement of the degradation front experimentally derived for all MS formulations, especially when produced at higher PLGA concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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23 pages, 3158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accelerated Ageing Procedures to Assess the Stability of an Unconventional Acrylic-Wax Polymeric Emulsion for Contemporary Art

by Francesca Caterina Izzo, Eleonora Balliana, Emanuela Perra and Elisabetta Zendri

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 1925; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12091925 - 26 Aug 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4651

Abstract

This research evaluates the stability of an aqueous emulsion of acrylic copolymers and waxes. Edelwachs, generally applied on wood, has been recently used as an unconventional medium in contemporary painting. Through Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) and Fourier Transformed Infrared Attenuated Total Reflectance (FT-IR-ATR) [...] Read more.

This research evaluates the stability of an aqueous emulsion of acrylic copolymers and waxes. Edelwachs, generally applied on wood, has been recently used as an unconventional medium in contemporary painting. Through Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS) and Fourier Transformed Infrared Attenuated Total Reflectance (FT-IR-ATR) analyses, the composition of Edelwachs was defined as a mixture of acrylic polymers (MA, MMA, nBA, nBMA), Carnauba and microcrystalline waxes and additives. Mock-ups-obtained mixing Edelwachs with titanium white, zinc white and ultramarine blue were subjected to UV, high temperatures, and high relative humidity accelerated ageing. The effect of the ageing procedures was evaluated through optical microscopy, colourimetric measurements, FT-IR-ATR, Thermogravimetry and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TG-DSC) and wettability measures. FT-IR-ATR spectra do not show significant variations in terms of chemical stability, indicating a fair stability of Edelwachs as a painting binder. UV and high temperature treatments show the most relevant effects in terms of colorimetric changes (increasing of b*) and thermal stability. The TG-DSC highlights the influence of the pigments (specifically zinc white) mainly on the thermal behaviour of the acrylates. The unexpected decrease of wettability of the paint films, registered after ageing, may indicate a possible phase separation among acrylates and waxes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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11 pages, 3848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of the Accelerated Aging Conditions on the Properties of Polyolefin Geogrids Used for Landfill Slope Reinforcement

by Agnieszka Kiersnowska, Wojciech Fabianowski and Eugeniusz Koda

Polymers 2020, 12(9), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12091874 - 20 Aug 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3078

Abstract

Polyolefin geosynthetics are susceptible to oxidative degradation, which in turn leads to diminished mechanical properties in geotechnical constructions. When using these materials, it is extremely important to determine their durability over time in particularly aggressive conditions. In order to prolong the life of [...] Read more.

Polyolefin geosynthetics are susceptible to oxidative degradation, which in turn leads to diminished mechanical properties in geotechnical constructions. When using these materials, it is extremely important to determine their durability over time in particularly aggressive conditions. In order to prolong the life of a geosynthetic material, antioxidants are added during the manufacturing process. The function of antioxidants is to prevent polymer oxidation reaction in time. As the antioxidant content is depleted, the polymer becomes less protected towards oxidative attacks. This article describes the aging process of uniaxial (high density polyethylene) HDPE geogrids under the influence of chemical and environmental factors. Evaluations of accelerated aging test of the uniaxial HDPE geogrids were incubated in simulated landfill conditions for a period of 12 months. Three temperatures (25 °C, 45 °C, and 75 °C) were selected for carrying out the aging experiments in aqueous solutions mimicking landfill conditions. The changes observed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and melt flow index (MFI) correlate with the mechanical properties of the aged geogrid. No significant changes in the FTIR and MFI were observed over the 12 months of accelerated aging tests at none of the three different temperatures. The oxidation induction time (OIT) test showed no antioxidant remaining in the geogrid following eight months of aging test at 75 °C. No significant changes in the influence of accelerated aging tests on the average relative elongation at 25 °C and 45 °C of the tested material were observed. Accelerated aging tests at 75 °C showed that the mean elongation of 12.12% for the sample not subjected to accelerated aging tests (new sample) increased to 19.32% (after 12 months of incubation). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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19 pages, 14252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Moisture and Aging Conditions of Oil-Immersed Cellulose Insulation Based on Fingerprints Database of Dielectric Modulus

by Yiyi Zhang, Sheng Li, Xianhao Fan, Jiefeng Liu and Jiaxi Li

Polymers 2020, 12(8), 1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12081722 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2798

Abstract

Frequency-domain spectroscopy (FDS) is demonstrated to be affected by electrode polarization and conductance behavior in the low-frequency ranges, which causes the unreliable prediction results of transformer cellulose insulation. In order to solve this issue, a fingerprint database based on the dielectric modulus is [...] Read more.

Frequency-domain spectroscopy (FDS) is demonstrated to be affected by electrode polarization and conductance behavior in the low-frequency ranges, which causes the unreliable prediction results of transformer cellulose insulation. In order to solve this issue, a fingerprint database based on the dielectric modulus is reported to predict the degree of polymerization (DP) and moisture content of cellulose insulation. In the current work, the relevant fingerprints that characterize the insulation conditions are obtained by studying the dielectric modulus curves of cellulose insulation with various insulation conditions, as well as the DC conductivity of transformer oil. Then, the dielectric modulus fingerprint database is established in the lab, and the accuracy of the reported fingerprint database is later verified. As a potential tool, the dielectric modulus fingerprint database is tested by several samples, and the results demonstrate that the accuracy of this method is more than 80%. In that respect, an interesting discovery of this paper is that the dielectric modulus fingerprint database may be a helpful tool for conditions prediction of the transformer cellulose insulation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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26 pages, 13892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Multiparameter Model for Multiaxial Fatigue Life Prediction of Rubber Materials

by Rafael Tobajas, Daniel Elduque, Elena Ibarz, Carlos Javierre and Luis Gracia

Polymers 2020, 12(5), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12051194 - 23 May 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4158

Abstract

Most of the mechanical components manufactured in rubber materials experience fluctuating loads, which cause material fatigue, significantly reducing their life. Different models have been used to approach this problem. However, most of them just provide life prediction only valid for each of the [...] Read more.

Most of the mechanical components manufactured in rubber materials experience fluctuating loads, which cause material fatigue, significantly reducing their life. Different models have been used to approach this problem. However, most of them just provide life prediction only valid for each of the specific studied material and type of specimen used for the experimental testing. This work focuses on the development of a new generalized model of multiaxial fatigue for rubber materials, introducing a multiparameter variable to improve fatigue life prediction by considering simultaneously relevant information concerning stresses, strains, and strain energies. The model is verified through its correlation with several published fatigue tests for different rubber materials. The proposed model has been compared with more than 20 different parameters used in the specialized literature, calculating the value of the R² coefficient by comparing the predicted values of every model, with the experimental ones. The obtained results show a significant improvement in the fatigue life prediction. The proposed model does not aim to be a universal and definitive approach for elastomer fatigue, but it provides a reliable general tool that can be used for processing data obtained from experimental tests carried out under different conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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21 pages, 7266 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Subtropical Natural Exposure on the Bond Behavior of FRP-Concrete Interface

by Xinyan Guo, Shenyunhao Shu, Yilin Wang, Peiyan Huang, Jiaxiang Lin and Yongchang Guo

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 967; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040967 - 21 Apr 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3021

Abstract

Subtropical natural exposure may significantly affect the bonding behavior of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) externally bonded to concrete. To study the effect of subtropical natural climates on the FRP-concrete interface, natural exposure tests and an analytical approach were carried out on specimens externally [...] Read more.

Subtropical natural exposure may significantly affect the bonding behavior of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) externally bonded to concrete. To study the effect of subtropical natural climates on the FRP-concrete interface, natural exposure tests and an analytical approach were carried out on specimens externally bonded with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) and basalt fiber reinforced polymer (BFRP). The bilinear bond stress-slip relationships for different exposure periods were derived from the experimental results of the strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beams. Based on these bond-slip relationships, the full-range behavior of shear stress along the bond length and debonding load can be obtained through the analytical solution. The testing and numerical results showed that subtropical natural exposure can greatly affect the bond behavior of CFRP-concrete and BFRP-concrete interfaces in the early exposure period. In the late exposure period, the bond behavior was basically stable. With the increase of exposure time, the position of maximum shear stress tended to move backward, which indicated that the behavior of the FRP-concrete interface was weakened by natural exposure. Compared to the CFRP-concrete interface, subtropical natural exposure has greater influence on the bond behavior of the BFRP-concrete interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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16 pages, 7123 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis on the Temperature Field and the Ampacity of XLPE Submarine HV Cable Based on Electro-Thermal-Flow Multiphysics Coupling Simulation

by Yiyi Zhang, Xiaoming Chen, Heng Zhang, Jiefeng Liu, Chaohai Zhang and Jian Jiao

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 952; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040952 - 20 Apr 2020

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5541

Abstract

The operating temperature and the ampacity are important parameters to reflect the operating state of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) submarine high voltage (HV) cables, and it is of great significance to study the electrothermal coupling law of submarine cable under the seawater flow field. [...] Read more.

The operating temperature and the ampacity are important parameters to reflect the operating state of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) submarine high voltage (HV) cables, and it is of great significance to study the electrothermal coupling law of submarine cable under the seawater flow field. In this study, according to the actual laying conditions of the submarine cable, a multi-physical coupling model of submarine cable is established based on the electromagnetic field, heat transfer field, and fluid field by using the COMSOL finite element simulation software. This model can help to analyze how the temperature and ampacity of the submarine cable are affected by different laying methods, seawater velocity, seawater temperature, laying depth, and soil thermal conductivity. The experimental results show that the pipe laying method can lead to the highest cable conductor temperature, even exceeding the maximum heat-resistant operating temperature of the insulation, and the corresponding ampacity is minimum, so heat dissipation is required. Besides, the conductor temperature and the submarine cable ampacity have a linear relationship with the seawater temperature, and small seawater velocity can significantly improve the submarine cable ampacity. Temperature correction coefficients and ampacity correction coefficients for steady-state seawater are proposed. Furthermore, the laying depth and soil thermal conductivity have great impact on the temperature field and the ampacity of submarine cable, so measures (e.g., artificial backfilling) in areas with low thermal conductivity are needed to improve the submarine cable ampacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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14 pages, 3913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure Time on Styrene-Ethylene-Butadiene-Styrene (SEBS) Copolymer

by Daniel Garcia-Garcia, José Enrique Crespo-Amorós, Francisco Parres and María Dolores Samper

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040862 - 9 Apr 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5035

Abstract

The effect of ultraviolet radiation on styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) has been studied at different exposures times in order to obtain a better understanding of the mechanism of ageing. The polymer materials were mechanically tested and then their surfaces were analyzed using a scanning electron [...] Read more.

The effect of ultraviolet radiation on styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) has been studied at different exposures times in order to obtain a better understanding of the mechanism of ageing. The polymer materials were mechanically tested and then their surfaces were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Moreover, the optical analysis of contact angle (OCA) was used to evaluate the surface energy (γ_s) and the yellowing index (YI) and attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR) were used to observe structural and physical changes in aging SEBS. The results obtained for the SEBS, in relation to the duration of exposure, showed superficial changes that cause a decrease in the surface energy (γ_s) and, therefore, a decrease in surface roughness. This led to a reduction in mechanical performance, decreasing the tensile strength by about 50% for exposure times of around 200 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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20 pages, 7548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of the Salt Water Aging on the Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Adhesives Compounds

by Anna Rudawska

Polymers 2020, 12(4), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12040843 - 6 Apr 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5756

Abstract

The objective of this study is to compare the effect of selected operating factors on the mechanical properties of epoxy adhesive compounds aged in salt water. Five different water environments were tested: tap water, normal seawater (reference salinity value), seawater with double reference [...] Read more.

The objective of this study is to compare the effect of selected operating factors on the mechanical properties of epoxy adhesive compounds aged in salt water. Five different water environments were tested: tap water, normal seawater (reference salinity value), seawater with double reference salinity value, seawater with half of the reference salinity and seawater with a quarter of the reference salinity value. Samples of two different adhesive compounds were prepared using the epoxy resin and triethylenetetramine curing agent. One of the compounds was filled with calcium carbonate. The samples were aged in five different water environments for three months, one month and one week, respectively. Mechanical properties of the cured adhesive compound samples were determined via strength tests performed on the Zwick/Roell Z150 testing machine in compliance with the EN ISO 604 standard. The objective of the experiments was to determine the effect of different seawater environments on selected mechanical properties (including strength) of the fabricated adhesive compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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17 pages, 5939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Adhesive Coating on the Hygrothermal Aging Performance of Pultruded CFRP Plates

by Xinkai Hao, Guijun Xian, Xiangyu Huang, Meiyin Xin and Haijuan Shen

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 491; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020491 - 23 Feb 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2579

Abstract

Bonding of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) plates to a concrete member is a widely used strengthening method. CFRP plates used in construction degrade due to harsh environmental conditions such as high temperature or alkaline solution seepage from concrete. However, the adhesive between [...] Read more.

Bonding of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) plates to a concrete member is a widely used strengthening method. CFRP plates used in construction degrade due to harsh environmental conditions such as high temperature or alkaline solution seepage from concrete. However, the adhesive between CFRP plates and concrete may have a positive effect on the durability performance of CFRP plates. In this paper, the long-term performance of both naked and adhesive coated CFRP pultruded plates subjected to different-temperature water or alkaline solution (20, 40 and 60 °C) are investigated to evaluate the protective effect of adhesive on CFRP plates. It is found that the adhesive coating can slow the deterioration of mechanical properties especially the tensile properties and fiber-matrix interfacial properties. The water absorption mechanism of CFRP plates was also investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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11 pages, 3408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Life Estimation with Mean Stress Effect Compensation for Lightweight Structures—The Case of GLARE 2 Composite

by Michał Böhm and Karolina Głowacka

Polymers 2020, 12(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12020251 - 21 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3717

Abstract

This paper describes the current state-of-the-art in fatigue life assessment for lightweight composite structures with the use of the frequency domain fatigue life calculation method. Random stationary gaussian loading signals have been generated and served in the process of fatigue calculation. The material [...] Read more.

This paper describes the current state-of-the-art in fatigue life assessment for lightweight composite structures with the use of the frequency domain fatigue life calculation method. Random stationary gaussian loading signals have been generated and served in the process of fatigue calculation. The material information that is being used in the calculation process has been obtained from literature for the Glare 2 composite. The effect of nonzero mean stress and different fiber orientations have been taken into account. The calculations have been performed for two mean stress compensation models by Goodman and Gerber. The proposed procedure gives satisfying results for the high-cycle fatigue region for Goodman and an overall good comparison in both regimes for the Gerber model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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13 pages, 5139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Evolution and Fracture Events Sequence Analysis of Core-Shell Nanoparticle Modified Bone Cements by Acoustic Emission Technique

by O.F. Pacheco-Salazar, Shuichi Wakayama, L.A. Can-Herrera, M.A.A. Dzul-Cervantes, C.R. Ríos-Soberanis and J.M. Cervantes-Uc

Polymers 2020, 12(1), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010208 - 15 Jan 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3034

Abstract

In this research, damage in bone cements that were prepared with core-shell nanoparticles was monitored during four-point bending tests through an analysis of acoustic emission (AE) signals. The core-shell structure consisted of poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) as rubbery core and methyl methacrylate/styrene copolymer (P(MMA- [...] Read more.

In this research, damage in bone cements that were prepared with core-shell nanoparticles was monitored during four-point bending tests through an analysis of acoustic emission (AE) signals. The core-shell structure consisted of poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) as rubbery core and methyl methacrylate/styrene copolymer (P(MMA-co-St)) as a glassy shell. Furthermore, different core-shell ratios 20/80, 30/70, 40/60, and 50/50 were prepared and incorporated into the solid phase of the bone cement formulation at 5, 10, and 15 wt %, respectively. The incorporation of a rubbery phase into the bone cement formulation decreased the bending strength and bending modulus. The AE technique revealed that the nanoparticles play an important role on the fracture mechanism of the bone cement, since a higher amount of AE signals (higher amplitude and energy) were obtained from bone cements that were prepared with the nanoparticles in comparison with those without nanoparticles (the reference bone cement). The SEM examination of the fracture surfaces revealed that all of the bone cement formulations exhibited stress whitening, which arises from the development of crazes before the crack propagation. Finally, the use of the AE technique and the fracture surface analysis by SEM enabled insight into the fracture mechanisms that are presented during four-point bending test of the bone cement containing nanoparticles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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15 pages, 4110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modified Aging Kinetics Model for Aging Condition Prediction of Transformer Polymer Insulation by Employing the Frequency Domain Spectroscopy

by Jiefeng Liu, Xianhao Fan, Yiyi Zhang, Hanbo Zheng, Zixiao Wang and Xixi Zhao

Polymers 2019, 11(12), 2082; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11122082 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3370

Abstract

The aging kinetics model is of great interest to scholars since it is capable of describing the variation law between the degree of polymerization (DP) and the aging duration of transformer polymer (cellulose) insulation. However, it is difficult to determine the [...] Read more.

The aging kinetics model is of great interest to scholars since it is capable of describing the variation law between the degree of polymerization (DP) and the aging duration of transformer polymer (cellulose) insulation. However, it is difficult to determine the moisture content inside the transformer polymer insulation without destroying it, so that the model parameters cannot be confirmed. Such limitation greatly restricts its application. It is interesting to note that as long as the moisture content of the transformer polymer insulation could be characterized (replaced) by a certain feature parameter, the above issue will be solved naturally. The existing researches indicate that the Frequency Domain Spectroscopy (FDS) is sensitive to moisture. Consequently, the feature parameter that could characterize the moisture inside transformer polymer insulation (extracted from the FDS curve) can be used to report a modified aging kinetics model, which could perform the aging condition prediction of transformer polymer insulation under various test conditions, including aging duration, aging temperature, and initial moisture. In that respect, the average relative error of prediction results of prepared samples is equal to 7.41%, which reveals that the reported model might be serviced as a potential tool for the aging condition prediction of transformer polymer insulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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22 pages, 8927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In-Situ Dynamic Response Measurement for Damage Quantification of 3D Printed ABS Cantilever Beam under Thermomechanical Load

by Hamzah Baqasah, Feiyang He, Behzad A. Zai, Muhammad Asif, Kamran A. Khan, Vijay K. Thakur and Muhammad A. Khan

Polymers 2019, 11(12), 2079; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11122079 - 12 Dec 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4611

Abstract

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) offers good mechanical properties and is effective in use to make polymeric structures for industrial applications. It is one of the most common raw material used for printing structures with fused deposition modeling (FDM). However, most of its properties [...] Read more.

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) offers good mechanical properties and is effective in use to make polymeric structures for industrial applications. It is one of the most common raw material used for printing structures with fused deposition modeling (FDM). However, most of its properties and behavior are known under quasi-static loading conditions. These are suitable to design ABS structures for applications that are operated under static or dead loads. Still, comprehensive research is required to determine the properties and behavior of ABS structures under dynamic loads, especially in the presence of temperature more than the ambient. The presented research was an effort mainly to provide any evidence about the structural behavior and damage resistance of ABS material if operated under dynamic load conditions coupled with relatively high-temperature values. A non-prismatic fixed-free cantilever ABS beam was used in this study. The beam specimens were manufactured with a 3D printer based on FDM. A total of 190 specimens were tested with a combination of different temperatures, initial seeded damage or crack, and crack location values. The structural dynamic response, crack propagation, crack depth quantification, and their changes due to applied temperature were investigated by using analytical, numerical, and experimental approaches. In experiments, a combination of the modal exciter and heat mats was used to apply the dynamic loads on the beam structure with different temperature values. The response measurement and crack propagation behavior were monitored with the instrumentation, including a 200× microscope, accelerometer, and a laser vibrometer. The obtained findings could be used as an in-situ damage assessment tool to predict crack depth in an ABS beam as a function of dynamic response and applied temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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13 pages, 7370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of the Test Method on the Characterization of the Fatigue Delamination Behavior of a Composite Material under Mixed Mode I/II Fracture

by Antonio Argüelles, Clara Rocandio, Silvia Rubiera, Isabel Viña and Jaime Viña

Polymers 2019, 11(11), 1788; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11111788 - 1 Nov 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3590

Abstract

Composite materials manufactured by overlapping plies with certain specific geometries are likely to lose part of their strength due to the presence of internally delaminated regions. The aim of this paper is to experimentally evaluate the generation and propagation of these interlaminar cracks [...] Read more.

Composite materials manufactured by overlapping plies with certain specific geometries are likely to lose part of their strength due to the presence of internally delaminated regions. The aim of this paper is to experimentally evaluate the generation and propagation of these interlaminar cracks in a carbon-epoxy composite material subjected to fatigue loading under mixed mode I/II fracture. Two different test methods were used for this purpose: The standardized mixed-mode bending (MMB) test and the asymmetric double cantilever beam (ADCB) test, with the goal of exploring the viability of the ADCB test as a simpler alternative to perform than the MMB test, especially in fatigue testing. With this aim in mind and after prior static characterization of the material in which the critical values of the energy release rate were determined under both test methods, the levels of the energy release rate to be applied in fatigue tests were defined for two mode mixity ratios, G_II/G_c = 0.2 and 0.4 (0.34 ADCB), and a fatigue loading ratio, R = G_min/G_max = 0.1. The G-N fatigue onset curves were subsequently obtained from these experimental data. The most relevant result of the study is that the fatigue limits obtained using the MMB method are generally more conservative than those obtained via the ADCB method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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1 pages, 542 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Babo et al. Characterization and Long-Term Stability of Historical PMMA: Impact of Additives and Acrylic Sheet Industrial Production Processes. Polymers 2020, 12, 2198

by Sara Babo, Joana Lia Ferreira, Ana Maria Ramos, Anna Micheluz, Marisa Pamplona, Maria Helena Casimiro, Luís M. Ferreira and Maria João Melo

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4105; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234105 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1394

Abstract

The authors wish to make a change to the published paper [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of the Ageing and Durability of Polymers II: Procedures and Reliability)

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