Polymers

Research

20 pages, 7074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modification of the Structure and Linear/Nonlinear Optical Characteristics of PVA/Chitosan Blend through CuO Doping for Eco-Friendly Applications

by Sami S. Alharthi and Ali Badawi

Polymers 2023, 15(10), 2391; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15102391 - 20 May 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 1962

Abstract

The solution casting technique is utilized to fabricate blank and CuO-doped polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan (PVA/CS) blends for eco-friendly applications. The structure and surface morphologies of prepared samples were explored by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), respectively. FT-IR analysis reveals [...] Read more.

The solution casting technique is utilized to fabricate blank and CuO-doped polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan (PVA/CS) blends for eco-friendly applications. The structure and surface morphologies of prepared samples were explored by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrophotometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), respectively. FT-IR analysis reveals the incorporation of CuO particles within the PVA/CS structure. SEM analysis exposes the well-dispersion of CuO particles in the host medium. The linear/nonlinear optical characteristics were found on the basis of UV-visible-NIR measurements. The transmittance of the PVA/CS decreases upon CuO increasing to 20.0 wt%. The optical bandgap (E_{g dir.}/E_{g ind.}) decreases from 5.38/4.67 eV (blank PVA/CS) to 3.72/3.12 eV (20.0 wt% CuO-PVA/CS). An obvious improvement in the optical constants of the PVA/CS blend is achieved by CuO doping. The Wemple-DiDomenico (WDD) and Sellmeier oscillator models were utilized to examine the CuO role dispersion behavior of the PVA/CS blend. The optical analysis shows clear enrichment of the optical parameters of the PVA/CS host. The novel findings in the current study nominate CuO-doped PVA/CS films for applications in linear/nonlinear optical devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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16 pages, 1941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Modification of Properties Relevant to the Processing and Application of Virgin and Post-Consumer Polypropylene

by Ines Traxler, Hannes Kaineder and Joerg Fischer

Polymers 2023, 15(7), 1717; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15071717 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1805

Abstract

Post-consumer recyclates often have a property profile that results from mixing a variety of products, which are made from different materials, produced by different processing methods, and coming from applications with different lifetimes. This usually leads to a mixture of all these material [...] Read more.

Post-consumer recyclates often have a property profile that results from mixing a variety of products, which are made from different materials, produced by different processing methods, and coming from applications with different lifetimes. This usually leads to a mixture of all these material properties in the recycling process. In contrast, virgin materials are specifically designed for applications and thus offer all the necessary properties for the intended products. In order to be able to use recycled materials for specific and demanding applications, not only the viscosity, which is important for processing and often varies greatly with recyclates, but also the mechanical properties, particularly the tensile modulus and impact strength, must be adjusted. For this purpose, various virgin materials of polypropylene homopolymers, random copolymers, and block copolymers with different flowabilities were mixed in different proportions and their properties were determined. The flowability of homopolymers and random copolymers in the blend behaved very similarly, while block copolymers exhibited a different behavior in some cases. By incorporating homopolymers into blends, the stiffness of the resulting material blend can be very well adjusted. The addition of random copolymers can increase strain at break, and the addition of block copolymers results in a significant increase in impact strength. In numbers, the maximum adjustment range for tensile modulus, yield stress, strain at break, and impact strength are 880 MPa, 14 MPa, 185%, and 6.9 kJ/m², respectively. While a good and reliable prediction of property profile is possible for polymer blends with different virgin materials, the resulting material properties for polymer blends of virgin and recycled materials are also influenced by impurities. In this work, however, a good prediction was also achieved for recyclate blends. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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12 pages, 2376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Eugenol and Its Novel Methacrylated Derivative on the Polymerization Degree of Resin-Based Composites

by Ali Alrahlah, Abdel-Basit Al-Odayni, Waseem Sharaf Saeed, Naaser A. Y. Abduh, Rawaiz Khan, Abdulrahman Alshabib, Faisal Fahad N. Almajhdi, Riad M. Alodeni and Merry Angelyn Tan De Vera

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051124 - 23 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2016

Abstract

The aim of this work was to assess the limiting rate of eugenol (Eg) and eugenyl-glycidyl methacrylate (EgGMA) at which the ideal degree of conversion (DC) of resin composites is achieved. For this, two series of experimental composites, containing, besides reinforcing silica and [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to assess the limiting rate of eugenol (Eg) and eugenyl-glycidyl methacrylate (EgGMA) at which the ideal degree of conversion (DC) of resin composites is achieved. For this, two series of experimental composites, containing, besides reinforcing silica and a photo-initiator system, either EgGMA or Eg molecules at 0–6.8 wt% per resin matrix, principally consisting of urethane dimethacrylate (50 wt% per composite), were prepared and denoted as UGx and UEx, where x refers to the EgGMA or Eg wt% in the composite, respectively. Disc-shaped specimens (5 × 1 mm) were fabricated, photocured for 60 s, and analyzed for their Fourier transform infrared spectra before and after curing. The results revealed concentration-dependent DC, increased from 56.70% (control; UG0 = UE0) to 63.87% and 65.06% for UG3.4 and UE0.4, respectively, then dramatically decreased with the concentration increase. The insufficiency in DC due to EgGMA and Eg incorporation, i.e., DC below the suggested clinical limit (>55%), was observed beyond UG3.4 and UE0.8. The mechanism behind such inhibition is still not fully determined; however, radicals generated by Eg may drive its free radical polymerization inhibitory activity, while the steric hindrance and reactivity of EgGMA express its traced effect at high percentages. Therefore, while Eg is a severe inhibitor for radical polymerization, EgGMA is safer and can be used to benefit resin-based composites when used at a low percentage per resin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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19 pages, 6900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Interface/Interphase on the Water Ingress Properties of Joints with PBT-GF30 and Aluminum Substrates Using Silicone Adhesive

by Catarina S. P. Borges, Eduardo A. S. Marques, Ricardo J. C. Carbas, Alireza Akhavan-Safar, Christoph Ueffing, Philipp Weißgraeber and Lucas F. M. da Silva

Polymers 2023, 15(4), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15040788 - 4 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1535

Abstract

The aim of this work is to analyze the difference between silicone/composite and silicone/metal interphases, both in terms of water diffusion behavior and failure of the aged joints. For that, silicone joints with two different suhbstrates were prepared. The substrates were polybutylene terephthalate [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to analyze the difference between silicone/composite and silicone/metal interphases, both in terms of water diffusion behavior and failure of the aged joints. For that, silicone joints with two different suhbstrates were prepared. The substrates were polybutylene terephthalate with 30% of short glass fiber (PBT-GF30) and 6082-T6 aluminum. It is assumed that the water uptake of the joints is equal to the water uptake of the substrate, adhesive, and interphase. Therefore, knowing the first three, the last could be isolated. To study the water diffusion behavior of the complete joint, rectangular joints were prepared, immersed in water and their water uptake was measured. The water immersion was conducted at 70 °C. It was concluded that the aluminum/silicone joints absorbed more water through the interphase region than the PBT-GF30/silicone joints, since the difference between the expected water uptake and the experimentally measured mass gain is significantly higher, causing adhesive failure of the joint. The same was not observed in the PBT-GF30/silicone, with a more stable interphase, that does not absorb measurable quantities of water and always exhibits cohesive failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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17 pages, 4302 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast-Processable Non-Flammable Phthalonitrile-Modified Novolac/Carbon and Glass Fiber Composites

by Daria Poliakova, Oleg Morozov, Yakov Lipatov, Alexander Babkin, Alexey Kepman, Viktor Avdeev and Boris Bulgakov

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4975; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224975 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2963

Abstract

Phthalonitrile resins (PN) are known for their incredible heat resistance and at the same time poor processability. Common curing cycle of the PN includes dozens hours of heating at temperatures up to 375 °C. This work was aimed at reducing processing time of [...] Read more.

Phthalonitrile resins (PN) are known for their incredible heat resistance and at the same time poor processability. Common curing cycle of the PN includes dozens hours of heating at temperatures up to 375 °C. This work was aimed at reducing processing time of phthalonitrile resin, and with this purpose, a novolac oligomer with hydroxyl groups fully substituted by phthalonitrile moieties was synthesized with a quantitative yield. Formation of the reaction byproducts was investigated depending on the synthesis conditions. The product was characterized by ¹H NMR and FT-IR. Curing of the resins with the addition of different amounts of novolac phenolic as curing agent (25, 50 and 75 wt.%) was studied by rheological and DSC experiments. Based on these data, a curing program was developed for the further thermosets’ investigation: hot-pressing at 220 °C and 1.7 MPa for 20 min. TGA showed the highest thermal stability of the resin with 25 wt.% of novolac (T_5% = 430 °C). The post-curing program was developed by the use of DMA with different heating rates and holding for various times at 280 or 300 °C (heating rate 0.5 °C/min). Carbon and glass fiber plastic laminates were fabricated via hot-pressing of prepregs with T_g’s above 300 °C. Microcracks were formed in the CFRP, but void-free GFRP were fabricated and demonstrated superior mechanical properties (ILSS up to 86 MPa; compressive strength up to 620 MPa; flexural strength up to 946 MPa). Finally, flammability tests showed that the composite was extinguished in less than 5 s after the flame source was removed, so the material can be classified as V-0 according to the UL94 ratings. For the first time, fast-curing phthalonitrile prepregs were presented. The hot-pressing cycle of 20 min with 150 min free-standing post-curing yielded composites with the unique properties. The combination of mechanical properties, scale-up suitable fast-processing and inflammability makes the presented materials prospective for applications in the electric vehicle industries, fast train construction and the aerospace industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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17 pages, 3920 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Radiation Processing of Styrene-isoprene-styrene/Poly(ε-caprolactone) Blends

by Eduard-Marius Lungulescu and Traian Zaharescu

Polymers 2022, 14(21), 4737; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14214737 - 4 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1606

Abstract

The irradiation consequences on styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS)/poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) blends are discussed starting from the oxidation initiation. Three characterization methods: chemiluminescence, differential scanning calorimetry and FTIR spectroscopy are applied. The differences that exist between the two components are revealed, when the oxidation rates of the [...] Read more.

The irradiation consequences on styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS)/poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) blends are discussed starting from the oxidation initiation. Three characterization methods: chemiluminescence, differential scanning calorimetry and FTIR spectroscopy are applied. The differences that exist between the two components are revealed, when the oxidation rates of the inspected formulas depend on the blending proportion and the degradation conditions. The relevant activation energies characterizing the oxidation strength as well as the kinetic parameters of degradation during the accelerated damaging of blended polymers are related to the inhibition protection of PCL on the faster oxidation of SIS. The interaction between mixed components is revealed by the structural modifications simultaneously accompanied by the competition of formation and decay of radicals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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12 pages, 5344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Characterization of LLDPE Blends with Different UHMWPE Concentrations Obtained by Hot Pressing

by Pollyana Melo Cardoso, Marcelo Massayoshi Ueki, Josiane Dantas Viana Barbosa, Willams Teles Barbosa, Benjamin Lazarus and Joyce Batista Azevedo

Polymers 2022, 14(18), 3723; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14183723 - 6 Sep 2022

Viewed by 2177

Abstract

To modify its characteristics, expand its applicability, and, in some cases, its processability, new blends using ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) have been developed. In this study, three different formulations of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) and UHMWPE blends were prepared with 15, 30, and 45% [...] Read more.

To modify its characteristics, expand its applicability, and, in some cases, its processability, new blends using ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) have been developed. In this study, three different formulations of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) and UHMWPE blends were prepared with 15, 30, and 45% (% w/w) UHMWPE in the LLDPE matrix. All mixtures were prepared by hot pressing and were immersed in water for one hour afterwards at a controlled temperature of 90 °C to relieve the internal stresses that developed during the forming process. The thermal characterization showed that the blends showed endothermic peaks with different melting temperatures, which may be the result of co-crystallization without mixing between the polymers during the forming process. The mechanical characteristics presented are typical of a ductile material, but with the increase in the percentage of UHMWPE, there was a decrease in the ductility of the blends, as the elongation at rupture of the blends was higher than that of the pure components. The morphologies observed by SEM indicate that there were two phases in the blends. This is the result of the system’s immiscibility due to the mode of preparation of the blends, wherein the two polymers may not have mixed intimately, confirming the results found with the thermal analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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11 pages, 2841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Physical Properties of HDPE/PU Blends through Improved Compatibility and Electron Beam Crosslinking

by Jin-Oh Jeong, Yong-Hyeon Oh, Sung-In Jeong and Jong-Seok Park

Polymers 2022, 14(17), 3607; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14173607 - 1 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2262

Abstract

Polymer blending is a method in which polymers with different properties are mixed so that each advantage appears in one polymer blend. Improved thermal and mechanical properties of blends can be prepared by blending with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) of a non-polar polymer and [...] Read more.

Polymer blending is a method in which polymers with different properties are mixed so that each advantage appears in one polymer blend. Improved thermal and mechanical properties of blends can be prepared by blending with high-density polyethylene (HDPE) of a non-polar polymer and polyurethane (PU) of a polar polymer. However, a compatibilizer is required because it has the disadvantage that blending has low miscibility due to the different phases. In this study, HDPE/PU blends with new and excellent physical properties were developed through optimal composition with improved compatibility between the HDPE and PU. In addition, the effects of improving the physical properties through electron-beam crosslinking were confirmed. In general, a crosslinking structure of HDPE is formed by electron beam irradiation to increase its thermal stability and strength, but its elongation is rapidly decreased. In particular, the elongation of HDPE irradiated at 100 kGy was about 110%, which was decreased about five times compared to unirradiated HDPE (510%). However, the HDPE/PU blend with improved compatibility (PU 30) showed an elongation of about 450% while maintaining excellent strength (22.5 MPa), which was increased by about four times compared to the HDPE irradiated at 100 kGy. In particular, the thermal stability of PU 30 irradiated at 100 kGy at a high temperature (180 °C) was improved more than six times compared to the HDPE. Therefore, it is possible to develop HDPE/PU blends with new and excellent physical properties by improving compatibility and using electron beam crosslinking technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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10 pages, 1520 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Effect of Silane Coupling Agents on the Rheology, Dynamic and Mechanical Properties of Ethylene Propylene Diene Rubber/Calcium Carbonate Composites

by Weina Bi, Christoph Goegelein, Martin Hoch, Joerg Kirchhoff and Shugao Zhao

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3393; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163393 - 19 Aug 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2674

Abstract

The effects of three trimethoxysilanes with different functional groups on the rheology, dynamic and mechanical properties of ethylene propylene diene rubber (EPDM)/calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) composites were investigated respectively. The results showed that the addition of silane increased the value of M [...] Read more.

The effects of three trimethoxysilanes with different functional groups on the rheology, dynamic and mechanical properties of ethylene propylene diene rubber (EPDM)/calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) composites were investigated respectively. The results showed that the addition of silane increased the value of M_H and M_H–M_L of the compounds. Geniosil XL 33 silane decreased the shear modulus of the EPDM/CaCO₃ compounds, and the bound rubber content increased slightly with the addition of vinyl trimethoxy silane (VTMS) and methylacryloxy-methyltrimethoxysilane (Geniosil XL 33) silane in the compounds. The vulcanizates with the addition of the VTMS and Geniosil XL 33 silane showed a significant increase in tensile strength and abrasion resistance; however, ethyltrimethoxysilane (ETMS) silane weakened the tensile strength and abrasion resistance of the vulcanizates. At low strain, the cross-linking and reaggregation of fillers resulted in a high storage modulus of vulcanizates with silane. When the strain exceeded 10%, the storage modulus of the vulcanizates with the Geniosil XL 33 and VTMS silane was higher. The loss modulus and tan δ of the vulcanized rubber with the Geniosil XL 33 and VTMS silanes were lower compared to the ETMS and 0 silane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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14 pages, 5579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modifying Anti-Compression Property and Water-Soluble Ability of Polyglycolic Acid via Melt Blending with Polyvinyl Alcohol

by Liao Wei, Shuyue Ma, Mengyuan Hao, Lanrong Ma and Xiang Lin

Polymers 2022, 14(16), 3375; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14163375 - 18 Aug 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2581

Abstract

Biodegradable polymeric materials have become the most attractive research interest in recent years and are gradually widely used in various fields in the case of environmental pollution. In this paper, binary blends, mainly including varying contents of polyglycolic acid (PGA) and poly(vinyl alcohol) [...] Read more.

Biodegradable polymeric materials have become the most attractive research interest in recent years and are gradually widely used in various fields in the case of environmental pollution. In this paper, binary blends, mainly including varying contents of polyglycolic acid (PGA) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), were prepared via a melt compounding strategy. The ethylene-methyl acrylate-glycidyl methacrylate (EMA-GMA) was employed as the compatibilizer to improve the compatibility between the PGA and PVA and the polyolefin elastomer (POE) was used as toughening agent. The anti-compression property and water-soluble ability of the blends were particularly studied to explore their potential application in an oil/gas exploitation field. Special attentions were paid to the evolution of the water-soluble ability of PGAX with the PVA concentration. Furthermore, isothermal shear measurement and thermogravimetric analysis were performed to evaluate the thermal stability of PGA and PGA blends (PGAX) during melt processing. The results showed that the incompatibility between PGA and PVA largely deteriorated the mechanical property, i.e., anti-compression strength, leading to fragile characteristics under a lower compressive load for the PGAX samples with varied contents of PVA. The presence of PVA and EMA-GMA greatly enhanced the viscoelasticity of the PGA melt, showing an increased storage modulus and viscosity at a low shear frequency; however, the thermal instability of PGAX was intensified owing to the greater ease of thermal degradation of PVA than that of PGA. Meanwhile, the water-soluble ability of PGAX was improved due to the high water dissolution of PVA, which played the role as a sacrificial material. The purpose of this work is to pursue an effective modification for PGA processing and application via melt blending. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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20 pages, 4268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Characterization of Polylactide Blends with Improved Toughness by Reactive Extrusion with Lactic Acid Oligomers

by Ramon Tejada-Oliveros, Stefano Fiori, Jaume Gomez-Caturla, Diego Lascano, Nestor Montanes, Luis Quiles-Carrillo and David Garcia-Sanoguera

Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1874; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091874 - 4 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2373

Abstract

In this work, we report the development and characterization of polylactide (PLA) blends with improved toughness by the addition of 10 wt.% lactic acid oligomers (OLA) and assess the feasibility of reactive extrusion (REX) and injection moulding to obtain high impact resistant injection [...] Read more.

In this work, we report the development and characterization of polylactide (PLA) blends with improved toughness by the addition of 10 wt.% lactic acid oligomers (OLA) and assess the feasibility of reactive extrusion (REX) and injection moulding to obtain high impact resistant injection moulded parts. To improve PLA/OLA interactions, two approaches are carried out. On the one hand, reactive extrusion of PLA/OLA with different dicumyl peroxide (DCP) concentrations is evaluated and, on the other hand, the effect of maleinized linseed oil (MLO) is studied. The effect of DCP and MLO content used in the reactive extrusion process is evaluated in terms of mechanical, thermal, dynamic mechanical, wetting and colour properties, as well as the morphology of the obtained materials. The impact strength of neat PLA (39.3 kJ/m²) was slightly improved up to 42.4 kJ/m² with 10 wt.% OLA. Nevertheless, reactive extrusion with 0.3 phr DCP (parts by weight of DCP per 100 parts by weight of PLA–OLA base blend 90:10) led to a noticeable higher impact strength of 51.7 kJ/m², while the reactive extrusion with 6 phr MLO gave an even higher impact strength of 59.5 kJ/m², thus giving evidence of the feasibility of these two approaches to overcome the intrinsic brittleness of PLA. Therefore, despite MLO being able to provide the highest impact strength, reactive extrusion with DCP led to high transparency, which could be an interesting feature in food packaging, for example. In any case, these two approaches represent environmentally friendly strategies to improve PLA toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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23 pages, 6279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Characterization of High Environmentally Friendly Composites of Bio-Based Polyamide 1010 with Enhanced Fire Retardancy Properties by Expandable Graphite

by David Marset, Eduardo Fages, Eloi Gonga, Juan Ivorra-Martinez, Lourdes Sánchez-Nacher and Luis Quiles-Carrillo

Polymers 2022, 14(9), 1843; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14091843 - 30 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2618

Abstract

Bio-based polyamide 1010 was melt-compounded with different percentages (2.5 to 10.0 wt.%) of expandable graphite (EGr) as an environmentally friendly solution to improve the flame retardancy properties. The mechanical, morphological, thermal and fire retardancy properties (among others) are analysed. The novelty of the [...] Read more.

Bio-based polyamide 1010 was melt-compounded with different percentages (2.5 to 10.0 wt.%) of expandable graphite (EGr) as an environmentally friendly solution to improve the flame retardancy properties. The mechanical, morphological, thermal and fire retardancy properties (among others) are analysed. The novelty of the article lies in the use of fully removable polyamide. The effect of the incorporation of EGr in the properties of this polymer was analysed and characterised. The incorporation of EGr into the PA1010 matrix led to very promising results. Mechanically, the EGr provided increased stiffness and a tensile strength up to 7.5 wt.%, verifying good mechanical performance. The DMTA results also show how the incorporation of EGr in the PA1010 matrix clearly increases the stiffness of the composites over the entire temperature range analysed. In terms of physical properties, water absorption of PA1010 was reduced particularly in the 10% EGr, which reduces the water absorption of PA1010 by 20%. In terms of flame retardant properties, with the incorporation of EGr, a significant reduction in the heat release rate (HRR) values as the concentration of the additive increases and a reduction in the maximum peak heat release rate (pHRR) can be observed for all compounds. In particular, it goes from 934 kW/m² for neat polyamide to a value of 374 kW/m² with 10% EGr. Finally, an improvement in the UL-94 rating of the 7.5 and 10% EGr composites was also observed, going from V-2 in the PA to V-1 in these composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Blends and Composites)

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