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Polymers
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Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts
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Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 May 2023) | Viewed by 66170

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xinfeng Wei

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Guest Editor
1. Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institutes of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
2. Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Interests: polymer degradation; long-term performance of polymers; biodegradable polymers; biodegradation; microplastics; plasticizers; plastic pollution; polymer-environment interactions
Prof. Dr. Emmanuel Richaud

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratoire PIMM, Arts et Metiers Institute of Technology, CNRS, Cnam, HESAM Universite, Paris, France
Interests: polymer chemistry; oxidation; antioxidants; chemical kinetics; kinetic modeling; material characterization
Dr. Andrew M. Booth

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Climate and Environment, SINTEF Ocean, Brattørkaia 17C, 7010 Trondheim, Norway
Interests: microplastic; nanoplastic; environmental fate; UV degradation; mechanical degradation; biodegradation; ecotoxicity; analytical chemistry; particle characterisation; chemical leaching; bioavailability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymer materials degrade under heat, light, water and chemical exposure during their processing, usage and waste stages. While physical and chemical degradation alters the structure and properties of polymeric materials, it can also lead to the release of plastic-associated chemicals (plasticizers, antioxidants, and monomers/oligomers) and degradation products into surrounding water, soil, or air, posing a potential risk to the environment and ecosystems. Microplastics and nanoplastics are key products and pollutants resulting from the degradation of large polymers, yet we have a limited understanding of how degradation mechanisms influence their environmental fate and impacts. It is important for the whole of society to understand the degradation process of polymers under different environments, the release of particulate and chemical pollutants from polymers, and their environmental fate and impacts.

In this Special Issue, we would like to collect new research and developments (original research papers, reviews, and short communications) dealing with “Polymer degradation and its environmental impacts”, with a focus on (but not limited to) the following topics:

  1. Degradation/ageing/durability of polymers;
  2. Thermal degradation, oxidation, hydrolysis, photo-oxidation, and environmental weathering;
  3. Biodegradation of polymer materials, including biodegradable/compostable polymers;
  4. Release of plastic-associated chemicals from plastics and rubbers;
  5. Microplastics and nanoplastics formation and degradation;
  6. Environmental fate and behavior of degraded polymer materials (including micro- and nanoplastics) and other degradation products;
  7. Environment impacts and toxicity of degraded polymers and degradation products.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Xinfeng Wei
Prof. Dr. Emmanuel Richaud
Dr. Andrew M. Booth
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • polymer degradation
  • biodegradation
  • ageing
  • pollutants
  • microplastics
  • environmental impacts
  • additives
  • long-term performance

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 3963 KiB  
Article
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy to Assess the Degree of Alteration of Artificially Aged and Environmentally Weathered Microplastics
by Claudia Campanale, Ilaria Savino, Carmine Massarelli and Vito Felice Uricchio
Polymers 2023, 15(4), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15040911 - 11 Feb 2023
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 9649
Abstract
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) is a spectroscopy technique widely used to identify organic materials. It has recently gained popularity in microplastic (MP) pollution research to determine the chemical composition of unknown plastic fragments. However, it could also be used to evaluate the degree [...] Read more.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) is a spectroscopy technique widely used to identify organic materials. It has recently gained popularity in microplastic (MP) pollution research to determine the chemical composition of unknown plastic fragments. However, it could also be used to evaluate the degree of ageing of MPs collected from the environment. In this context, the principal aim of our research has been to qualitatively evaluate the natural weathering of environmental MPs collected in an Italian freshwater body (the Ofanto River) using ATR-FTIR technology. Furthermore, we compared environmental particles to weathered artificial MPs under controlled light and temperature conditions and to unaltered pristine materials to assess the results. FTIR spectra were acquired using a Nicolet Summit FTIR (ThermoFisher Scientific) equipped with an Everest ATR with a diamond Crystal plate and a DTGS KBr detector (wavenumber range 4000–500 cm−1, 32 scans per spectrum, spectral resolution of 4 cm−1). The degree of ageing was assessed using three different indexes known to be related to changes in MPs: Carbonyl Index (CI), Hydroxyl Index (HI), and Carbon-Oxygen Index (COI). The overall results showed that the regions reflecting changes (hydroxyl groups, peaks from 3100 to 3700 cm−1, alkenes or carbon double bonds, 1600 and 1680 cm−1, and carbonyl groups, 1690 and 1810 cm−1) appeared significantly modified in artificial and natural weathered particles compared to the pristine materials. The indexes calculated for polymers degraded under the artificial photo and thermo ageing conditions displayed a general tendency to increase with the time in contact with irradiation time. Particular enhancements of CI of PS fragment and PE pellet, HI of PE and PS fragments and PE pellet, and COI of PS fragment were observed. Otherwise, the following incubation of the same particles at a constant temperature of 45 °C did not further affect the chemical composition of the particles. Moreover, new unique peaks were also observed in the freshwater particles, almost all in the fingerprint region (1500–500 cm−1). Differences in CI, HI, and COI were evidenced among the different morphological MP shapes. On the one hand, the CI calculated for the environmental PE pellets showed values ranging from 0.05 to 0.26 with a mean value of 0.17 ± 0.10. Most samples (57%) presented a CI with values between 0.16 and 0.30. On the other hand, fragments presented slicer modifications in the carbonyl region with CI values lower than pellets (0.05 ± 0.05). This index helps evaluate the degradation of PE MPs by UV light, increasing with enhancing residence time in the environment. Conversely, fragments showed greater values of HI (5.90 ± 2.57) and COI (1.04 ± 0.48) than pellets, as well as lines, which presented the maximum value of HI (11.51). HI is attributed to the bond vibrations of hydroxyl, carboxyl, or phenol groups. In contrast, COI is frequently attributed to the vibrations of C_O bonds found in carbohydrates, alkanes, secondary alcohols, and ketones. In conclusion, our results showed characteristics spectra acquired from environmental particles compared to pristine and artificial aged ones. The interpretation of our main results emphasizes the need to conduct ecotoxicological experimental studies using naturally weathered particles due to the unicity of their properties, which are more helpful for understanding microplastic pollution effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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14 pages, 4798 KiB  
Article
Characterization and Gel Properties of Low-Molecular-Weight Carrageenans Prepared by Photocatalytic Degradation
by Chen Song, Ying You, Chengrong Wen, Yinghuan Fu, Jingfeng Yang, Jun Zhao and Shuang Song
Polymers 2023, 15(3), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15030602 - 24 Jan 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2254
Abstract
Low-molecular-weight carrageenan has attracted great interest because it shows advantages in solubility, absorption efficiency, and bioavailability compared to original carrageenan. However more environment-friendly and efficient methods to prepare low-molecular-weight carrageenan are still in great need. In the present study, a photocatalytic degradation method [...] Read more.
Low-molecular-weight carrageenan has attracted great interest because it shows advantages in solubility, absorption efficiency, and bioavailability compared to original carrageenan. However more environment-friendly and efficient methods to prepare low-molecular-weight carrageenan are still in great need. In the present study, a photocatalytic degradation method with only TiO2 has been developed and it could decrease the average molecular weight of κ-carrageenan to 4 kDa within 6 h. The comparison of the chemical compositions of the degradation products with those of carrageenan by FT-IR, NMR, etc., indicates no obvious removement of sulfate group, which is essential for bioactivities. Then 20 carrageenan oligosaccharides in the degradation products were identified by HPLC-MSn, and 75% of them possessed AnGal or its decarbonylated derivative at their reducing end, indicating that photocatalysis is preferential to break the glycosidic bond of AnGal. Moreover, the analysis results rheology and Cryo-SEM demonstrated that the gel property decreased gradually. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that the photocatalytic method with TiO2 as the only catalyst has the potential to prepare low-molecular-weight carrageenan with high sulfation degree and low viscosity, and it also proposed the degradation rules after characterizing the degradation products. Thus, the present study provides an effective green method for the degradation of carrageenan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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14 pages, 1376 KiB  
Article
Study of the Potential Accumulation of the Pesticide Alpha-Endosulfan by Microplastics in Water Systems
by Sílvia D. Martinho, Virgínia Cruz Fernandes, Sónia A. Figueiredo and Cristina Delerue-Matos
Polymers 2022, 14(17), 3645; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14173645 - 2 Sep 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2772
Abstract
Microplastics (MP) are spread into all ecosystems and represent a threat to the equilibrium of the environment and human health, not only due to their intrinsic characteristics but also to their action as effective carriers of contaminants, such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, polychlorinated biphenyls [...] Read more.
Microplastics (MP) are spread into all ecosystems and represent a threat to the equilibrium of the environment and human health, not only due to their intrinsic characteristics but also to their action as effective carriers of contaminants, such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, polychlorinated biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The pesticide α-endosulfan is persistent and spread in the environment. The MP are another possible way of dissemination to be considered in the fate of this pesticide. The adsorption dynamics of α-endosulfan by six different MP (low-density polyethylene—LDPE, polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate, unplasticized polyvinyl chloride, polyamide 6, polystyrene granule, polypropylene granule) with different sizes/shapes and chemical compositions were evaluated. The most critical situation was identified for the system LDPE (particle size < 300 μm). Equilibrium studies (48 h equilibrium time) were performed for distilled, tap and filtered river water. Based on the Langmuir model parameters, the highest maximum adsorption capacity was obtained for distilled water, followed by filtered river and tap waters (i.e., 366 ± 39, 247 ± 38, 157 ± 22 μg/g). The obtained results demonstrate the important role that microplastics may have in the fate and transport of pesticides and their potentially harmful effect on the environment, which requires further investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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14 pages, 1340 KiB  
Article
Raman Microspectroscopy Detection and Characterisation of Microplastics in Human Breastmilk
by Antonio Ragusa, Valentina Notarstefano, Alessandro Svelato, Alessia Belloni, Giorgia Gioacchini, Christine Blondeel, Emma Zucchelli, Caterina De Luca, Sara D’Avino, Alessandra Gulotta, Oliana Carnevali and Elisabetta Giorgini
Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2700; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132700 - 30 Jun 2022
Cited by 320 | Viewed by 36692
Abstract
The widespread use of plastics determines the inevitable human exposure to its by-products, including microplastics (MPs), which enter the human organism mainly by ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Once internalised, MPs may pass across cell membranes and translocate to different body sites, triggering [...] Read more.
The widespread use of plastics determines the inevitable human exposure to its by-products, including microplastics (MPs), which enter the human organism mainly by ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Once internalised, MPs may pass across cell membranes and translocate to different body sites, triggering specific cellular mechanisms. Hence, the potential health impairment caused by the internalisation and accumulation of MPs is of prime concern, as confirmed by numerous studies reporting evident toxic effects in various animal models, marine organisms, and human cell lines. In this pilot single-centre observational prospective study, human breastmilk samples collected from N. 34 women were analysed by Raman Microspectroscopy, and, for the first time, MP contamination was found in 26 out of 34 samples. The detected microparticles were classified according to their shape, colour, dimensions, and chemical composition. The most abundant MPs were composed of polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polypropylene, with sizes ranging from 2 to 12 µm. MP data were statistically analysed in relation to specific patients’ data (age, use of personal care products containing plastic compounds, and consumption of fish/shellfish, beverages, and food in plastic packaging), but no significant relationship was found, suggesting that the ubiquitous MP presence makes human exposure inevitable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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Review

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28 pages, 2034 KiB  
Review
The Microplastics Iceberg: Filling Gaps in Our Understanding
by Diana Rede, Cristina Delerue-Matos and Virgínia Cruz Fernandes
Polymers 2023, 15(16), 3356; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15163356 - 10 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3521
Abstract
Plastic is an indispensable material in modern society; however, high production rates combined with inadequate waste management and disposal have resulted in enormous stress on ecosystems. In addition, plastics can become smaller particles known as microplastics (MPs) due to physical, chemical, and biological [...] Read more.
Plastic is an indispensable material in modern society; however, high production rates combined with inadequate waste management and disposal have resulted in enormous stress on ecosystems. In addition, plastics can become smaller particles known as microplastics (MPs) due to physical, chemical, and biological drivers. MP pollution has become a significant environmental problem affecting terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Although the topic is not entirely new, it is of great importance to the field of polymers, drawing attention to specific gaps in the existing literature, identifying future areas of research, and improving the understanding of MP pollution and its environmental impacts. Despite progress in this field, problems remain. The lack of standardized methods for MP sampling, separation, extraction, and detection makes it difficult to collect information and establish links between studies. In addition, the distribution and pathways of MPs in ecosystems remain unknown because of their heterogeneous nature and the complex matrices in which they occur. Second, toxicological tests showed that MPs can be ingested by a wide range of organisms, such as Danio rerio and Eisenia fetida, resulting in gut obstruction, physical damage, histological changes, and oxidative stress. The uptake of MP and their toxicological effects depend on their shape, size, concentration, and polymer composition. Furthermore, MPs can enter the food chain, raising concerns regarding potential contaminations for human and environmental health. This review paper sheds light on the pressing issue of MP pollution and highlights the need for interdisciplinary collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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17 pages, 969 KiB  
Review
Biodegradation of Plastics Induced by Marine Organisms: Future Perspectives for Bioremediation Approaches
by Thomas Viel, Loredana Manfra, Valerio Zupo, Giovanni Libralato, Mariacristina Cocca and Maria Costantini
Polymers 2023, 15(12), 2673; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15122673 - 14 Jun 2023
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 7168
Abstract
Plastic pollution is a distinctive element of the globalized world. In fact, since the 1970s the expansion and use of plastics, particularly in the consumer and commercial sectors, has given this material a permanent place in our lives. The increasing use of plastic [...] Read more.
Plastic pollution is a distinctive element of the globalized world. In fact, since the 1970s the expansion and use of plastics, particularly in the consumer and commercial sectors, has given this material a permanent place in our lives. The increasing use of plastic products and the wrong management of end-of-life plastic products have contributed to increasing environmental pollution, with negative impacts on our ecosystems and the ecological functions of natural habitats. Nowadays, plastic pollution is pervasive in all environmental compartments. As aquatic environments are the dumping points for poorly managed plastics, biofouling and biodegradation have been proposed as promising approaches for plastic bioremediation. Known for the high stability of plastics in the marine environment, this represents a very important issue to preserve marine biodiversity. In this review, we have summarized the main cases reported in the literature on the degradation of plastics by bacteria, fungi, and microalgae and the degradation mechanisms involved, to highlight the potential of bioremediation approaches to reduce macro and microplastic pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Degradation and Its Environmental Impacts)
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