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Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (5 January 2023) | Viewed by 45962

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Emmanuel Akpan

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Guest Editor

Leibniz-Institut für Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern (TUK), Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse, Building 58, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
Interests: wood chemistry and functional modifications; wood polymer composite processing and characterization; natural fibre property enhancement

Dr. Suchart Siengchin

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Guest Editor

Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok 10800, Thailand
Interests: polymer and composite processing; structure-property relationships; natural fiber; composite material; and modeling and rheology based on polymer

Dr. Bernd Wetzel

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Leibniz-Institut für Verbundwerkstoffe GmbH, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern (TUK), Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse, Building 58, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
Interests: nanocomposites; multifunctional thermosets; biocomposites; tribology; fracture mechanics; structure–property relationship

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Wood polymer composites (WPCs) are gaining wide acceptance in the society for structural and semi-structural applications such as furniture, building construction and automotive engineering. In addition to sustainability, mechanical performance and lightweight advantages, WPCs do not compete with food production as the fibres are to a large extent obtained as wastes from other processes. Furthermore, the use of wood and wood fibre composites contributes substantially to environmental protection. Harvesting one kilogram of wood takes up 1.84 kg of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, wood fibres possess high water adsorption capacity, poor surface adhesion, low thermal stability, poor UV weathering resistance, and poor dimensional stability. Solving these problems is the key to advancing the applications of wood polymer composites. Key variables governing the performance of wood polymer composites include the nature of the wood fibre (shape, size, composition, and surface quality), manufacturing process and parameters, and structure of the polymeric matrix (chemical and compositional structures). Recent strategies for performance improvement of WPC include chemical/thermal treatments and surface sizing of fibres, matrix functionalization, and hybridization. This Special Issue focuses on innovative approaches to overcome the shortcomings of wood polymer composites. High quality articles in the following areas will be considered for publication after extensive peer review:

Novel chemical and enzymatic modification strategies of wood fibres for composite applications (studies reporting sustainable and green modification techniques will be given preference).

UV, plasma, and thermal modification strategies of wood fibres for WPC applications (preference will be given to articles reporting innovative attempts to improve UV resistance, thermal/dimensional stability, and impact toughness).

Matrix functionalization and fibre sizing for WPC applications (sustainable functionalization strategies will receive precedence).

Chemical resistance of wood fibre composites

Hybrid resin formulation for wood fibre composites.

Analytical and numerical modelling of processes and properties of wood fibre composites (e.g., porosity as it relates to properties, injection moulding processes and their effect on properties, damping and vibrational properties).

Innovative processing methods for cost reduction and performance improvement of wood polymer composites (e.g., additive manufacturing).

Hybridization of wood fibres towards extended durability, thermal stability, and toughness of wood polymer composites (preference will be given to articles reporting the use of environmentally friendly hybrid particles).

Using new characterization techniques to understand the structural relationship between fibres and matrix.

New application areas for WPC.

Application oriented design strategies for WPC materials (critical review).

Sustainability in wood fibre modifications for WPC (critical review).

Dr. Emmanuel Akpan
Prof. Suchart Siengchin
Dr. Bernd Wetzel
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Wood fibers
Polymer composites
Modification
Functionalization
Hybridization
Characterization
Sustainability
Durability

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1998 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal and Gluing Properties of Phenol-Based Resin with Lignin for Potential Application in Structural Composites

by Danilo Soares Galdino, Marcel Yuzo Kondo, Victor Almeida De Araujo, Gretta Larisa Aurora Arce Ferrufino, Emerson Faustino, Herisson Ferreira dos Santos, André Luis Christoforo, Carlos Manuel Romero Luna and Cristiane Inácio de Campos

Polymers 2023, 15(2), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15020357 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2613

Abstract

Using Kraft lignin, bio-based adhesives have been increasingly studied to replace those petrochemical-based solutions, due to low cost, easy availability and the potential for biodegradability of this biomaterial. In this study, lignin-based phenol-formaldehyde (LPF) resins were synthesized using commercial Eucalypt Kraft Lignin (EKL), purified at 95%, as a phenol substitute in different proportions of 10%, 20%, 30% and 50%. The properties of bio-based phenol formaldehyde (BPF) synthesized resin were compared with phenol-formaldehyde resin (PF) used for control sampling. The results indicated that viscosity, gel time and solid contents increased with the addition of pure EKL. The shear strength test of glue line was studied according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and BPF-based results were superior to samples bonded with the PF as a control sample, being suitable for structural purposes. Changes in the curing behavior of different resins were analyzed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and sample comparison indicated that the curing of the LPF resin occurred at lower temperatures than the PF. The addition of EKL in PF reduced its thermal stability compared to traditional resin formulation, resulting in a lower decomposition temperature and a smaller amount of carbonaceous residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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19 pages, 5741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Creep Compliance of Wood Polymer Composites: Using Untreated Wood Fibers as a Filler in Recycled and Neat Polypropylene Matrix

by Marko Bek, Alexandra Aulova, Klementina Pušnik Črešnar, Sebastjan Matkovič, Mitjan Kalin and Lidija Slemenik Perše

Polymers 2022, 14(13), 2539; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14132539 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2401

Abstract

Neat (NPP) and recycled (RPP) polypropylene matrix materials were used to prepare wood–polymer composites with untreated wood fibers up to 40 wt.%. Long-term creep properties obtained through the time-temperature superposition showed superior creep resistance of composites with NPP matrix. In part, this is attributed to their higher crystallinity and better interfacial adhesion caused by the formation of a transcrystalline layer. This difference resulted in up to 25% creep compliance reduction of composites with NPP matrix compared to composites with recycled (RPP) polypropylene matrix, which does not form a transcrystalline layer between the fibers and polymer matrix. Despite the overall inferior creep performance of composites with RPP matrix, from the 20 wt.% on, the creep compliance is comparable and even surpasses the creep performance of unfilled NPP matrix and can be a promising way to promote sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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21 pages, 3398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Strength and Low-Cost Biobased Polyurethane Foam Composites Enhanced by Poplar Wood Powder Liquefaction

by Wanjia Yang, Yanming Han, Wei Zhang and Derong Zhang

Polymers 2021, 13(17), 2999; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13172999 - 4 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3098

Abstract

An environmentally friendly liquefaction of wood powder was prepared by atmospheric pressure liquefaction technology to replace the non-renewable petroleum polyols in the preparation of polyurethane foam composites. The liquefaction time varied from 0 min to 140 min. The composition of liquefied products and the effects of liquefaction time on the morphology, apparent density and mechanical properties of polyurethane foam composites were investigated. The results showed that the optimal process time for the preparation of wood powder liquefaction products, which could replace traditional petroleum polyols, was 110 min. At this time, polyether polyols are the main liquefaction products, with an average molecular weight in Mn reaching 237 and average molecular weight in Mw reaching 246. The functional group of the liquefied product consisted mainly of hydroxyl, with the highest content of 1042 mg KOH/g and the lowest acid number of 1.6 mg KOH/g. In addition, the surface of the polyurethane foam based on poplar wood is dominated by closed cell foam; thus its foam has good heat insulation and heat preservation properties. At 110 min liquefaction time, the apparent density of polyurethane foam is 0.164 g/cm³ and the compression strength is 850 kPa, which is higher than that of traditional polyurethane foam (768 kPa), which is without wood powder modification. Replacing petroleum polyol with renewable wood powder liquefaction products to prepare biomass-based polyurethane foam composite materials, researching complex chemical changes in different liquefaction stages, and finding the best liquefaction conditions are of great significance to optimize the performance of polyurethane, address the shortage of resources and reduce environmental pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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16 pages, 6872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal, Physical and Mechanical Properties of Poly(Butylene Succinate)/Kenaf Core Fibers Composites Reinforced with Esterified Lignin

by Harmaen Ahmad Saffian, Masayuki Yamaguchi, Hidayah Ariffin, Khalina Abdan, Nur Kartinee Kassim, Seng Hua Lee, Ching Hao Lee, Ayu Rafiqah Shafi and Aisyah Humairah Alias

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2359; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142359 - 19 Jul 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3097

Abstract

In this study, Kraft lignin was esterified with phthalic anhydride and was served as reinforcing filler for poly(butylene succinate) (PBS). Composites with different ratios of PBS, lignin (L), modified lignin (ML) and kenaf core fibers (KCF) were fabricated using a compounding method. The fabricated PBS composites and its counterparts were tested for thermal, physical and mechanical properties. Weight percent gain of 4.5% after lignin modification and the FTIR spectra has confirmed the occurrence of an esterification reaction. Better thermo-mechanical properties were observed in the PBS composites reinforced with modified lignin and KCF, as higher storage modulus and loss modulus were recorded using dynamic mechanical analysis. The density of the composites fabricated ranged from 1.26 to 1.43 g/cm³. Water absorption of the composites with the addition of modified lignin is higher than that of composites with unmodified lignin. Pure PBS exhibited the highest tensile strength of 18.62 MPa. Incorporation of lignin and KCF into PBS resulted in different extents of reduction in tensile strength (15.78 to 18.60 MPa). However, PBS composite reinforced with modified lignin exhibited better tensile and flexural strength compared to its unmodified lignin counterpart. PBS composite reinforced with 30 wt% ML and 20 wt% KCF had the highest Izod impact, as fibers could diverge the cracking propagation of the matrix. The thermal conductivity value of the composites ranged from 0.0903 to 0.0983 W/mK, showing great potential as a heat insulator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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20 pages, 4401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Integral Utilization of Date Palm Waste to Produce Plastic Composites

by Chihaoui Belgacem, Ferran Serra-Parareda, Quim Tarrés, Pere Mutjé, Marc Delgado-Aguilar and Sami Boufi

Polymers 2021, 13(14), 2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13142335 - 16 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2851

Abstract

In this work, date palm waste (DPW) stemming from the annual pruning of date palm was used as a reinforcing filler in polypropylene matrix at 20–60 wt.%. Only a grinding process of the DPW has been performed to ensure no residue generation and full utilization. The present work investigates how the DPW use affects mechanical properties and water absorption of the ensuing composite. The effect of the addition of maleated polypropylene (MAPP) as a coupling agent on the composite properties was also studied. It was shown that the reinforcing potential of DPW was strongly dependent on aspect ratio and interface quality. The MAPP addition resulted in a composite with higher strength and stiffness than the neat PP, meaning that DPW behaves as reinforcement. The difference in the reinforcing effect was explained by the change in the quality of the interface between date palm waste and the polypropylene polymeric chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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16 pages, 3198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

X-ray Shielding, Mechanical, Physical, and Water Absorption Properties of Wood/PVC Composites Containing Bismuth Oxide

by Worawat Poltabtim, Ekachai Wimolmala, Teerasak Markpin, Narongrit Sombatsompop, Vichai Rosarpitak and Kiadtisak Saenboonruang

Polymers 2021, 13(13), 2212; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13132212 - 4 Jul 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4244

Abstract

The potential utilization of wood/polyvinyl chloride (WPVC) composites containing an X-ray protective filler, namely bismuth oxide (Bi₂O₃) particles, was investigated as novel, safe, and environmentally friendly X-ray shielding materials. The wood and Bi₂O₃ contents used in this work varied from 20 to 40 parts per hundred parts of PVC by weight (pph) and from 0 to 25, 50, 75, and 100 pph, respectively. The study considered X-ray shielding, mechanical, density, water absorption, and morphological properties. The results showed that the overall X-ray shielding parameters, namely the linear attenuation coefficient (µ), mass attenuation coefficient (µ_m), and lead equivalent thickness (Pb_eq), of the WPVC composites increased with increasing Bi₂O₃ contents but slightly decreased at higher wood contents (40 pph). Furthermore, comparative Pb_eq values between the wood/PVC composites and similar commercial X-ray shielding boards indicated that the recommended Bi₂O₃ contents for the 20 pph (40 ph) wood/PVC composites were 35, 85, and 40 pph (40, 100, and 45 pph) for the attenuation of 60, 100, and 150-kV X-rays, respectively. In addition, the increased Bi₂O₃ contents in the WPVC composites enhanced the Izod impact strength, hardness (Shore D), and density, but reduced water absorption. On the other hand, the increased wood contents increased the impact strength, hardness (Shore D), and water absorption but lowered the density of the composites. The overall results suggested that the developed WPVC composites had great potential to be used as effective X-ray shielding materials with Bi₂O₃ acting as a suitable X-ray protective filler. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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13 pages, 3085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Polymer Biofilm Formation on Titanium-Based Anode Surface in Microbial Fuel Cells with Poplar Substrate

by Ahmet Erensoy and Nurettin Çek

Polymers 2021, 13(11), 1833; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13111833 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2739

Abstract

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have attracted attention by directly converting the bioelectrochemical energy possessed by the organic materials that make up the biomass into electrical energy. In this study, the relationship between the biofilm formed on the titanium-based anode electrode surface, and the chemical composition of the substrate, the energy source of MFC, was investigated. For this, MFCs were made by using poplar wood shavings rich in organic material as the substrate, titanium-based material as the anode electrode, and natural soil as bacterial habitat. Three types of MFCs containing 1%, 10%, and 20% poplar wood shavings by weight were made and named P1-MFC, P2-MFC, and P3-MFC, respectively. According to electrochemical analysis, P3-MFC provided the highest open circuit voltage with 490 mV value, and the highest power density with 5.11 mW/m² value compared to other MFCs. According to optical microscopy examinations, there were Bacillus and Coccus species of bacteria in the soil structure, and these bacteria also existed around the fiber of poplar wood shavings in MFCs. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectrum (EDS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed that MFCs formed biofilm in the titanium-based anode, and the chemical composition of this biofilm with poplar tree was similar. As a result, due to the catalysis reactions of bacteria, the titanium-based anode electrode surface was coated with polymer biofilm released from poplar wood shavings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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17 pages, 8027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

By-Products from Food Industry as a Promising Alternative for the Conventional Fillers for Wood–Polymer Composites

by Aleksander Hejna, Jerzy Korol, Paulina Kosmela, Anton Kuzmin, Adam Piasecki, Arkadiusz Kulawik and Błażej Chmielnicki

Polymers 2021, 13(6), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060893 - 14 Mar 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3164

Abstract

The present paper describes the application of two types of food-industry by-products, brewers’ spent grain (BSG), and coffee silverskin (ŁK) as promising alternatives for the conventional beech wood flour (WF) for wood–polymer composites. The main goal was to investigate the impact of partial and complete WF substitution by BSG and ŁK on the processing, structure, physicochemical, mechanical, and thermal properties of resulting composites. Such modifications enabled significant enhancement of the melt flowability, which could noticeably increase the processing throughput. Replacement of WF with BSG and ŁK improved the ductility of composites, which affected their strength however. Such an effect was attributed to the differences in chemical composition of fillers, particularly the presence of proteins and lipids, which acted as plasticizers. Composites containing food-industry by-products were also characterized by the lower thermal stability compared to conventional WF. Nevertheless, the onset of decomposition exceeding 215 °C guarantees a safe processing window for polyethylene-based materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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Review

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40 pages, 7074 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Effect of Various Environmental Conditions on the Impact Damage Behaviour of Natural-Fibre-Reinforced Composites (NFRCs)—A Critical Review

by Muneer Ahmed. Musthaq, Hom Nath Dhakal, Zhongyi Zhang, Antigoni Barouni and Rizal Zahari

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1229; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051229 - 28 Feb 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 3842

Abstract

Studies into environmental conditions and their effects on the properties of renewable materials are gaining significant attention in the research field, particularly for natural fibres and their resultant composites. However, natural fibres are prone to water absorption because of the hydrophilic nature of the fibres, which affects the overall mechanical properties of natural-fibre-reinforced composites (NFRCs). In addition, NFRCs are based mainly on thermoplastic and thermosetting matrices, which could be used in automobile and aerospace components as lightweight materials. Therefore, such components have to survive the maximum temperature and humid conditions in different parts of the world. Based on the above factors, through an up-to-date review, this paper critically discusses the effects of environmental conditions on the impact performance of NFRCs. In addition, this paper critically assesses the damage mechanisms of NFRCs and their hybrids by focusing more on moisture ingress and relative humidity in the impact damage behaviour of NFRCs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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21 pages, 3424 KiB

Open AccessReview

Enriching WPCs and NFPCs with Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene

by Damian Łukawski, Patrycja Hochmańska-Kaniewska, Dominika Janiszewska, Grzegorz Wróblewski, Jeff Patmore and Agnieszka Lekawa-Raus

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040745 - 15 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3970

Abstract

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene, with their unique mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, and wettability properties, are very effective fillers for many types of composites. Recently, a number of studies have shown that CNTs and graphene may be integrated into wood–plastic composites (WPCs) and natural-fibre-reinforced polymer composites (NFPCs) to improve the existing performance of the WPCs/NFPCs as well as enabling their use in completely new areas of engineering. The following review analyses the results of the studies presented to date, from which it can be seen that that inclusion of CNTs/graphene may indeed improve the mechanical properties of the WPCs/NFPCs, while increasing their thermal conductivity, making them electroconductive, more photostable, less sensitive to water absorption, less flammable, and more thermally stable. This study indicates that the composition and methods of manufacturing of hybrid WPCs/NFPCs vary significantly between the samples, with a consequent impact on the level of improvement of specific properties. This review also shows that the incorporation of CNTs/graphene may enable new applications of WPCs/NFPCs, such as solar thermal energy storage devices, electromagnetic shielding, antistatic packaging, sensors, and heaters. Finally, this paper recognises key challenges in the study area, and proposes future work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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21 pages, 3312 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Compressive Behavior and Crashworthiness of Cork: A Review

by Claudia Sergi, Fabrizio Sarasini and Jacopo Tirillò

Polymers 2022, 14(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14010134 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

Cork, a natural material from renewable resources, is currently attracting increasing interest in different industrial fields because of its cellular structure and the presence of the flexible suberin as its main chemical component. In an agglomerated form, it proved to be a compelling product not only as a thermal and acoustic insulator, but also as core material in sandwich structures and as a liner or padding in energy absorbing equipment. From this perspective, the assessment of its compressive response is fundamental to ensure the right out-of-plane stiffness required to a core material and the proper crashworthiness in the safety devices. Considering the complex nature of cork and the resulting peculiar compressive response, the present review article provides an overview of this paramount property, assessing the main parameters (anisotropy, temperature, strain rate, etc.) and the peculiar features (near-zero Poisson’s ratio and unique dimensional recovery) that characterize it in its natural state. Furthermore, considering its massive exploitation in the agglomerated form, the design parameters that allow its compressive behavior to be tailored and the operating parameters that can affect its crashworthiness were assessed, reporting some potential industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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32 pages, 3866 KiB

Open AccessReview

Incorporation of Biochar to Improve Mechanical, Thermal and Electrical Properties of Polymer Composites

by Chinmoyee Das, Sandeep Tamrakar, Alper Kiziltas and Xinfeng Xie

Polymers 2021, 13(16), 2663; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13162663 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 66 | Viewed by 8245

Abstract

The strive for utilization of green fillers in polymer composite has increased focus on application of natural biomass-based fillers. Biochar has garnered a lot of attention as a filler material and has the potential to replace conventionally used inorganic mineral fillers. Biochar is a carbon rich product obtained from thermochemical conversion of biomass in nitrogen environment. In this review, current studies dealing with incorporation of biochar in polymer matrices as a reinforcement and conductive filler were addressed. Each study mentioned here is nuanced, while addressing the same goal of utilization of biochar as a filler. In this review paper, an in-depth analysis of biochar and its structure is presented. The paper explored the various methods employed in fabrication of the biocomposites. A thorough review on the effect of addition of biochar on the overall composite properties showed immense promise in improving the overall composite properties. An analysis of the possible knowledge gaps was also done, and improvements were suggested. Through this study we tried to present the status of application of biochar as a filler material and its potential future applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Polymer Composites: Modification, Processing and Characterization)

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