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Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology

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A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Remote Sensing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2023) | Viewed by 34328

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Lieven Verdonck

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Guest Editor

Department of Archaeology, Ghent University, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 35, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
Interests: archaeology; near surface geophysics; ground-penetrating radar

Dr. Neil Linford

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Guest Editor

Geophysics Team, Historic England, Fort Cumberland, Portsmouth P04 9LD, UK
Interests: geophysical survey; ground-penetrating radar

Dr. Immo Trinks

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Guest Editor

Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science, University of Vienna, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1, 1190 Vienna, Austria
Interests: archaeological prospection; near surface geophysics; GPR; magnetometry; underwater survey; laser scanning

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has become an established technique in near-surface geophysics, and numerous studies have illustrated its usefulness in archaeology. Generally when applied in soils with low electrical conductivity, GPR can provide high-resolution, 3-D information on buried archaeological remains. Increasingly large GPR data sets are efficiently collected, processed and interpreted archaeologically.

This Special Issue aims to report studies covering the latest applications of GPR surveys conducted at a wide variety of archaeological sites, in different environments and archaeological landscapes. Examples for the successful use of GPR in settings where this was not expected, or where GPR prospection had never been tried before, or – conversely – where it failed in conditions generally considered favourable, are instructive and any contributions presenting such case studies are welcome.

In particular, we invite researchers to contribute papers on any aspect that is innovative in terms of enhanced efficiency or an increased potential to extract archaeological information from GPR measurements. A few examples of challenges and questions are listed below, but topics are not limited to these.

Traditional interpretation methods (visual inspection and manual delineation) seem no longer sufficient to analyse rapidly growing geophysical prospection data sets. This issue is even more pressing for GPR, because of its 3-D nature. Several (semi-)automated approaches (including machine-learning based methods) have recently been published, but have not yet received widespread adoption.
A related question is whether these new analysis tools can be applied not just to 2-D images (time- or depth-slices or vertical radargrams), but whether they can also result in interpretation, visualisation and publication practices taking into account the full 3-D nature of GPR data.
In recent years, the use of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) in near-surface geophysics has emerged. Can this approach be useful for archaeological GPR studies? How does the penetration depth and resolution of UAV-based surveys compare to ground-coupled GPR survey? How important is the loss of information? In addition, can the use of robotic ground vehicles become feasible in the near future? What are the implications on survey speed, imaging resolution and possible legal issues?
To what extent can the calculation of attributes, or the combination and integration of GPR data with other geophysical or remote sensing data (e.g. through ‘data fusion’) advance our understanding of archaeological sites and landscapes, in ways that would not be possible without these methods of analysis?

Dr. Lieven Verdonck
Dr. Neil Linford
Dr. Immo Trinks
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Archaeology
Archaeological prospection
Near-surface geophysics
Ground-penetrating radar
Archaeological interpretation of GPR data
Semi-automatic GPR data interpretation
Machine learning and GPR
Innovative three-dimensional GPR data imaging and visualisation
Experimental UAV enabled and robotic GPR surveys
Multi-method geophysical prospection
Attribute extraction and analysis
Data fusion involving GPR data

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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23 pages, 5611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Day at the Bog: Preliminary Interpretation of Prehistoric Human Occupation at Ancient Lake Duvensee (Germany) by GPR Structures

by Erica Corradini, Stefan Dreibrodt, Harald Lübke, Ulrich Schmölcke, Magdalena Wieckowska-Lüth, Tina Wunderlich, Dennis Wilken, Jan Piet Brozio and Wolfgang Rabbel

Remote Sens. 2023, 15(14), 3647; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15143647 - 21 Jul 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1515

Abstract

Understanding the landscape evolution and human-environmental interaction within it is one of the key tasks of early Holocene research. As mobile hunter–gatherers leave few traces of structural organization, understanding their habitats is relevant for comprehending these people. Rarely does the spatial distribution of artifacts correspond to the real pattern of past human activity, but rather shows the pattern of identified artifacts. Geophysical investigations try to fill this gap and have been applied increasingly in archaeological prospection delivering landscape reconstruction, which are verified and fine-tuned using corings and excavations. Despite promising 3D models, a tool to predict the location of undiscovered former human presence and the conditions which influenced people to move across the landscape is not well developed. The primary goal of this paper is to present a methodology for connecting spatial patterns of past human activity based on archaeological and geophysical data. We discuss different GPR (ground-penetrating radar) facies classified at the shoreline of the former Lake Duvensee and geomorphological variables, which leads to the possibility of understanding where and why people chose preferred areas to settle on former islands. We also demonstrate that Mesolithic hunter–gatherer groups preferred dry areas with access to open water for short-term campsites and flatter and more protected areas for specialized and repeatedly occupied campsites. The cardinal orientation of a campsite seems to be secondary to the local peat over-growing process and access to water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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20 pages, 40874 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Ephemeral Features with Ground-Penetrating Radar: An Approach to Roman Military Camps

by Jesús García Sánchez, José Manuel Costa-García, João Fonte and David González-Álvarez

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4884; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194884 - 30 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3235

Abstract

This paper addresses an experimental approach to the archaeological study of Roman camps in NW Iberia using ground-penetrating radar (henceforth GPR). The main goal is to explore the capabilities of GPR to extract datasets from ephemeral features, such as temporary camps or siege works, among others. This information aims to maximise the data available before excavation, orienting it to areas that could provide good results in terms of feature detection and contrast between soil matrix and archaeological deposits. This paper explores the potential of the GPR approach and volumetric data visualisation to improve our understanding of four ephemeral sites: Alto da Raia (Montalegre, Portugal–Calvos de Randín, Spain), Sueros de Cepeda (Villamejil, Spain), Los Andinales (Villsandino, Spain), and Villa María (Sasamón, Spain). Despite the focus of this paper, other survey techniques (namely LiDAR, aerial photography, and magnetometry) were used in combination with GPR. Further excavation of the sites provided ground truthing for all data remotely gathered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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22 pages, 7142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hyperbola Detection with RetinaNet and Comparison of Hyperbola Fitting Methods in GPR Data from an Archaeological Site

by Tina Wunderlich, Dennis Wilken, Bente Sven Majchczack, Martin Segschneider and Wolfgang Rabbel

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(15), 3665; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153665 - 30 Jul 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3343

Abstract

Hyperbolic diffractions in Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data are caused by a variety of subsurface objects such as pipes, stones, or archaeological artifacts. Supplementary to their location, the propagation velocity of electromagnetic waves in the subsurface can be derived. In recent years, it was shown that deep learning tools can automatically detect hyperbola in radargrams using data measured over urban infrastructure, which are relatively clear. In contrast, in this study, we used an archaeological dataset with diverse underground structures. In the first step we used the deep learning network RetinaNet to detect hyperbola automatically and achieved an average precision of 0.58. In the next step, 10 different approaches for hyperbola fitting and thus velocity determination were applied. The derived information was validated with manually determined velocities and apex points. It was shown that hyperbola extraction by using a threshold and a column connection clustering (C3) algorithm followed by simple hyperbola fitting is the best method, which had a mean velocity error of 0.021 m/ns compared to manual determination. The average 1D velocity-depth distribution derived in 10 ns intervals was in shape comparable to the manually determined one, but had a systematic shift of about 0.01 m/ns towards higher velocities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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27 pages, 7092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements in Shallow Water Environments—A Case Study

by Annika Fediuk, Tina Wunderlich, Dennis Wilken and Wolfgang Rabbel

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(15), 3659; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153659 - 30 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2859

Abstract

In this study, we investigate GPR measurements in freshwater of less than 5 m at four different locations to derive rules of thumb in terms of depth penetration, resolution, and material contrasts of the method for 200 and 400 MHz antennas under field conditions. The objective is to improve the attractiveness of the method for archaeological issues in water, as there are hardly any studies on this subject so far. The depth penetration of 2–4 m is negligibly influenced by the choice of the 200 or 400 MHz antenna. Organic material in the water column also does not affect the water depth but offers new fields of applications for mapping and volume estimation of biomass in lakes with GPR. The horizontal resolution in the cm range in the direction of the profile and in the dm range across the profile could not be improved by the narrow antenna radiation pattern of <30° at the 3 dB level. In the crossline direction, the use of an antenna array would be necessary here. Still, the narrow antenna pattern reduces side reflections. Most common archaeological material contrasts can be resolved with the method. The method shows reflection coefficients >0.1 for materials of <80% porosity to the water column and for materials of <25% porosity and of >45% porosity to water-saturated sand. Large reflection coefficients also show, for example, granite to sand and gyttja to wood. The water column has a considerable effect on the data quality of the 400 MHz antenna from a depth of 2 m due to the antenna ringing. Furthermore, multiples must be expected in a water column <0.5 m. The method can especially complement the common geophysical methods of seismics and geoelectrics to exclude material ambiguities. The major advantage is the simple setting of the land equipment in the water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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17 pages, 11936 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Newly Developed Tool for the Post-Processing of GPR Time-Slices in A GIS Environment

by Stefano De Angeli, Matteo Serpetti and Fabiana Battistin

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3459; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143459 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2849 | Correction

Abstract

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a precious and reliable research tool broadly used in archaeology because of its capacity to produce three-dimensional data about features preserved underground, such as buildings, infrastructures, and burials, as well as building rubble. GPR data (time-slices) management and exploitation in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is mostly limited to the visualization and the manual interpretation and mapping of separate single time-slices. This study presents a newly developed plug-in designed to automatically post-process GPR time-slices in a GIS environment, to identify anomalies, and to produce a synchronic view of them. This map product, when combined with a DTM, results in a 2D map of subsurface anomalies which shows the absolute height of features above sea level, thus offering a comprehensive view of the three-dimensional configuration of the subsurface features identified. The paper illustrates the pixel-based processing chain of the plug-in and the results of the tests carried out in the case study of the Roman town of Falerii Novi (Italy), on the basis of high-resolution open access GPR data recently collected by the University of Cambridge and Ghent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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33 pages, 9358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Environmental Factors on the Quality of GPR Data: The Borre Monitoring Project

by Petra Schneidhofer, Christer Tonning, Rebecca J. S. Cannell, Erich Nau, Alois Hinterleitner, Geert J. Verhoeven, Lars Gustavsen, Knut Paasche, Wolfgang Neubauer and Terje Gansum

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3289; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143289 - 8 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3378

Abstract

The Borre Monitoring Project investigated how environmental factors, in particular, precipitation and soil moisture variation as well as different soil and sediment types, affect the quality of GPR data collected for archaeological purposes. To study these questions, regular GPR surveys were conducted over a period of 14 months across a test area covering a hall building at the Iron and Viking Age site of Borre in Norway. In order to obtain in situ measurements of environmental factors relevant for electromagnetic wave propagation including volumetric water content, bulk electrical conductivity, ground temperature, and precipitation, three monitoring stations were erected at the test site. Soil and sediment samples taken from the profiles at the respective monitoring stations were analysed to gain a basic description of their physical and chemical properties. Twelve GPR surveys were conducted roughly once a month between August 2016 and September 2017 and the results clearly indicated differences in the quality of the data collected. To better understand the underlying causes for this variation, GPR data were compared against and integrated with the in situ measurements gathered using the monitoring stations. The results of this analysis emphasised the benefit of dry conditions, which, if prevailing over a longer period of time, proved to generate GPR data of the highest quality. Seasonality could not be attested; instead, data quality was governed by small-scale weather patterns, where the time and intensity of rainfall events prior to the surveys as well as sudden changes in air temperature played a decisive role. While the results of this study are only valid for sites with similar settings such as Borre, they emphasise the importance of considering the environmental factors during all stages of a GPR survey and highlight the need for further studies investigating other settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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21 pages, 7487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interdisciplinary Investigations of the Neolithic Circular Ditch Enclosure of Velm (Lower Austria)

by Mario Wallner, Michael Doneus, Ingrid Kowatschek, Alois Hinterleitner, Felix Köstelbauer and Wolfgang Neubauer

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(11), 2657; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14112657 - 1 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3470

Abstract

Middle Neolithic circular enclosures, known as Kreisgrabenanlage (KGA), are the oldest known monumental sites in Central Europe, dating roughly to 4850–4600/4500 BC. These large prehistoric monuments are mainly discovered by aerial archaeology and have been investigated by geophysical prospection and archaeological excavations since the 1960s. The site of Velm (Lower Austria) was discovered by aerial photographs in 2001. Due to its unusual location on a flat gravel plateau, the enclosure has become the object of intensive interdisciplinary research in recent years. In 2016, two motorized ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were conducted, resulting in a detailed three-dimensional dataset visualizing the circular ditches, palisades and dwellings of an adjacent settlement. The high contrast between the gravel sediments and the humic earthen backfill of the ditches, palisades and individual postholes resulted in a highly detailed visualization of the Middle Neolithic monument. Based on this survey, selected structures were investigated by targeted archaeological excavations to evaluate the GPR results and to take samples for radiocarbon dating. This paper presents a synopsis of all the methods used. An integrated interpretation of aerial photo information, magnetometry and GPR is conducted, and it is shown to what extent these could be verified by the targeted archaeological excavation. By a detailed analysis of all applied archaeological prospection methods, it is now possible to interpret the monument in its entirety and confirm its dating to the Middle Neolithic Lengyel cultural complex. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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28 pages, 110557 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

3D Visualization Techniques for Analysis and Archaeological Interpretation of GPR Data

by Alexander Bornik and Wolfgang Neubauer

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(7), 1709; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14071709 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4979

Abstract

The non-invasive detection and digital documentation of buried archaeological heritage by means of geophysical prospection is increasingly gaining importance in modern field archaeology and archaeological heritage management. It frequently provides the detailed information required for heritage protection or targeted further archaeological research. High-resolution magnetometry and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) became invaluable tools for the efficient and comprehensive non-invasive exploration of complete archaeological sites and archaeological landscapes. The analysis and detailed archaeological interpretation of the resulting large 2D and 3D datasets, and related data from aerial archaeology or airborne remote sensing, etc., is a time-consuming and complex process, which requires the integration of all data at hand, respective three-dimensional imagination, and a broad understanding of the archaeological problem; therefore, informative 3D visualizations supporting the exploration of complex 3D datasets and supporting the interpretative process are in great demand. This paper presents a novel integrated 3D GPR interpretation approach, centered around the flexible 3D visualization of heterogeneous data, which supports conjoint visualization of scenes composed of GPR volumes, 2D prospection imagery, and 3D interpretative models. We found that the flexible visual combination of the original 3D GPR datasets and images derived from the data applying post-processing techniques inspired by medical image analysis and seismic data processing contribute to the perceptibility of archaeologically relevant features and their respective context within a stratified volume. Moreover, such visualizations support the interpreting archaeologists in their development of a deeper understanding of the complex datasets as a starting point for and throughout the implemented interactive interpretative process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

11 pages, 788 KiB

Open AccessReview

GPR Data Processing and Interpretation Based on Artificial Intelligence Approaches: Future Perspectives for Archaeological Prospection

by Melda Küçükdemirci and Apostolos Sarris

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3377; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143377 - 13 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4956

Abstract

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a well-established technique used in archaeological prospection and it requires a number of specialized routines for signal and image processing to enhance the data acquired and lead towards a better interpretation of them. Computer-aided techniques have advanced the interpretation of GPR data, dealing with a wide range of operations aiming towards locating, imaging, and diagnosis/interpretation. This article will discuss the novel and recent applications of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques, under the artificial intelligence umbrella, for processing GPR measurements within archaeological contexts, and their potential, limitations, and possible future prospects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ground-Penetrating Radar for Archaeology)

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