Remote Sensing

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5 pages, 188 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

An Overview of Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover

by Xiaohua Hao, Hongyi Li, Xufeng Wang, Xiaoyan Wang, Xiaodong Huang and Jian Bi

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(22), 5694; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14225694 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2073

Abstract

Climate change has profoundly impacted elements of land surface at high latitudes and elevations, especially snow and vegetation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

Research

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18 pages, 5072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cloud and Snow Identification Based on DeepLab V3+ and CRF Combined Model for GF-1 WFV Images

by Zuo Wang, Boyang Fan, Zhengyang Tu, Hu Li and Donghua Chen

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4880; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194880 - 30 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2436

Abstract

Cloud and snow identification in remote sensing images is critical for snow mapping and snow hydrology research. Aimed at the problem that the semantic segmentation model is prone to producing blurred boundaries, slicing traces and isolated small patches for cloud and snow identification [...] Read more.

Cloud and snow identification in remote sensing images is critical for snow mapping and snow hydrology research. Aimed at the problem that the semantic segmentation model is prone to producing blurred boundaries, slicing traces and isolated small patches for cloud and snow identification in high-resolution remote sensing images, the feasibility of combining DeepLab v3+ and conditional random field (CRF) models for cloud and snow identification based on GF-1 WFV images is studied. For GF-1 WFV images, the model training and testing experiments under the conditions of different sample numbers, sample sizes and loss functions are compared. The results show that, firstly, when the number of samples is 10,000, the sample size is 256 × 256, and the loss function is the Focal function, the model accuracy is the optimal and the Mean Intersection over Union (MIoU) and the Mean Pixel Accuracy (MPA) reach 0.816 and 0.918, respectively. Secondly, after post-processing with the CRF model, the MIoU and the MPA are improved to 0.836 and 0.941, respectively, compared with those without post-processing. Moreover, the misclassifications such as blurred boundaries, slicing traces and isolated small patches are significantly reduced, which indicates that the combination of the DeepLab v3+ and CRF models has high accuracy and strong feasibility for cloud and snow identification in high-resolution remote sensing images. The conclusions can provide a reference for high-resolution snow mapping and hydrology applications using deep learning models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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11 pages, 1841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Point-to-Surface Upscaling Algorithms for Snow Depth Ground Observations

by Yingxu Hou, Xiaodong Huang and Lin Zhao

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 4840; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14194840 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1764

Abstract

To validate the accuracy of snow depth products retrieved from passive microwave remote sensing data with a high confidence level, the verification method based on points of ground observation is subject to great uncertainty, due to the scale effect. Thus, it is necessary [...] Read more.

To validate the accuracy of snow depth products retrieved from passive microwave remote sensing data with a high confidence level, the verification method based on points of ground observation is subject to great uncertainty, due to the scale effect. Thus, it is necessary to use a point-to-surface scale transformation method to obtain the relative ground truth at the remote sensing pixel scale. In this study, by using the snow depth ground observations at different observation scales, the upscaling methods are conducted based on simple average (SA), geostatistical, Bayes maximum entropy (BME), and random forest (RF) algorithms. In addition, the cross-validation of the leave-one-out method is employed to validate the upscaling results. The results show that the SA algorithm is seriously inadequate for estimating snow depth variation in space, and is only suitable for regions with relatively flat terrain and small variation of snow depth. The BME algorithm can introduce prior knowledge and perform kernel smoothing on observed data, and the upscaling result is superior to geostatistical and RF algorithms, especially when the observed data is insufficient, and outliers appear. The results of the study are expected to provide a reference for developing a point-to-surface upscaling method based on snow depth ground observations, and to further solve the uncertainties caused by scale effects in snow depth and other land surface parameter inversion and validation, by using remote sensing data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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16 pages, 6789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Trend and Impact of Snowmelt Rate in Spring across China’s Three Main Stable Snow Cover Regions over the Past 40 Years Based on Remote Sensing

by Xuejiao Wu, Rao Zhu, Yinping Long and Wei Zhang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(17), 4176; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14174176 - 25 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

Historical patterns of snow cover and snowmelt are shifting due to climate warming and perhaps some human activities, threatening natural water resources and the ecological environment. Passive microwave remote sensing provides quantitative data for snow mass evaluation. Here, we evaluated the long-term impact [...] Read more.

Historical patterns of snow cover and snowmelt are shifting due to climate warming and perhaps some human activities, threatening natural water resources and the ecological environment. Passive microwave remote sensing provides quantitative data for snow mass evaluation. Here, we evaluated the long-term impact of climate warming on snowmelt rates, using snow water equivalent (SWE) datasets derived from passive microwave remotely sensed data over China’s three main stable snow cover regions during the past 40 years (1981–2020). The results showed that higher ablation rates in spring were found in locations with a deeper SWE because of high snowmelt rates that occurred in late spring and early summer in areas with a deeper snowpack. Annual maximum SWE (snow water equivalent) has declined across two out of the three main mountains of China’s snow cover regions over the past 40 years under climate warming. The maximum and mean snowmelt rate was ca. 30 and 3 mm/day, respectively, over the three regions. Further, due to SWE being reduced in these deep snowpack areas, moderate and high rates of snowmelt showed trends of decline after 2000. Accordingly, an earlier snow onset day (average 0.6~0.7 day/a) and slower snowmelt rates characterized the mountainous areas across the three main snow cover regions. The slower snowmelt rate is also closely related to vegetation improvement over the three main stable snow cover regions. Therefore, not only vegetation in spring but also streamflow and other ecological processes could be affected by the pronounced changes in SWE and snowmelt rates. These findings strengthen our understanding of how to better assess ecological and environmental changes towards the sustainable use of freshwater resources in spring and earlier summer months in snow-rich alpine regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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18 pages, 19099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Effects of Snow Cover and Vegetation on Soil Temperature Using Remote Sensing Indicators in the Three River Source Region, China

by Xiaoqing Tan, Siqiong Luo, Hongmei Li, Xiaohua Hao, Jingyuan Wang, Qingxue Dong and Zihang Chen

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 4114; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14164114 - 22 Aug 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3100

Abstract

Soil temperature is an important physical variable that characterises geothermal conditions and influences geophysical, biological and chemical processes in the earth sciences. Soil temperature is not only affected by climatic and geographical factors; it is also modulated by local factors such as snow [...] Read more.

Soil temperature is an important physical variable that characterises geothermal conditions and influences geophysical, biological and chemical processes in the earth sciences. Soil temperature is not only affected by climatic and geographical factors; it is also modulated by local factors such as snow cover and vegetation. This paper investigates the relationship between snow cover and vegetation and soil temperature with the help of two classical remote sensing indicators, the Snow Cover Days (SCD) based Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)-based Global Inventory Modelling and Mapping Studies, to analyse the influence of local factors on soil temperature in the Three River Source Region (TRSR). Combing multi-layer geothermal observations from 23 stations in the TRSR with meteorological dataset, soil properties datasets, snow cover and vegetation indices, a non-linear model, the Random Forest model, is used to establish a multi-layer soil temperature dataset to analyse the influence of surface cover factors in each depth. The results showed that the annual SCD had a decreasing trend during 1982–2015 and was negatively correlated with the annual mean soil temperature; the annual NDVI had no significant trend, but it was positively correlated with the annual mean soil temperature. Regionally, there was a significant decrease in SCD in the mountainous areas bordering the source areas of the three rivers, and there was a trend of increasing NDVI in the northwest and decreasing vegetation in the southwest in the TRSR. The stronger the correlation with soil temperature in areas with a larger SCD, the more the snow has a cooling effect on the shallower soil temperatures due to the high albedo of the accumulated snow and the repeated melting and heat absorption of the snow in the area. The snow has an insulating effect on the 40 cm soil layer by impeding the cooling effect of the atmosphere in winter. In sparsely vegetated areas, vegetation lowers ground albedo and warms the soil, but in July and August, in areas with more vegetation, NDVI is negatively correlated with soil temperature, with heavy vegetation intercepting summer radiant energy and having a cooling effect on the soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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17 pages, 2564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Fire Effects on Landscape Snow Albedo Recovery and Decay

by Max Gersh, Kelly E. Gleason and Anton Surunis

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 4079; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14164079 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2660

Abstract

Surface snow albedo (SSA) darkens immediately following a forest fire, while landscape snow albedo (LSA) brightens as more of the snow-covered surface becomes visible under the charred canopy. The duration and variability of the post-fire snow albedo recovery process remain unknown beyond a [...] Read more.

Surface snow albedo (SSA) darkens immediately following a forest fire, while landscape snow albedo (LSA) brightens as more of the snow-covered surface becomes visible under the charred canopy. The duration and variability of the post-fire snow albedo recovery process remain unknown beyond a few years following the fire. We evaluated the temporal variability of post-fire snow albedo recovery relative to burn severity across a chronosequence of eight burned forests burned from 2000 to 2019, using pre- and post-fire daily, seasonal, and annual landscape snow albedo data derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MOD10A1). Post-fire annual LSA increased by 21% the first year following the fire and increased continually by 33% on average across all eight forest fires and burn severity classifications over the period of record (18 years following a fire). Post-fire LSA measurements increased by 63% and 53% in high and moderate burn severity areas over ten years following fire. While minimum and maximum snow albedo values increased relative to annual post-fire LSA recovery, daily snow albedo decay following fresh snowfall accelerated following forest fire during the snowmelt period. Snow albedo recovery over 10 years following fire did not resemble the antecedent pre-fire unburned forest but more resembled open meadows. The degradation of forest canopy structure is the key driver underlying the paradox of the post-fire snow albedo change (SSA vs. LSA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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22 pages, 7332 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Snow Cover Phenology Change and Response to Climate in China during 2000–2020

by Qin Zhao, Xiaohua Hao, Jian Wang, Siqiong Luo, Donghang Shao, Hongyi Li, Tianwen Feng and Hongyu Zhao

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 3936; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14163936 - 13 Aug 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2943

Abstract

Snow cover phenology (SCP) is critical to the climate system. China has the most comprehensive snow cover distribution in the middle and low latitudes and has shown dramatic changes over the past few decades. However, the spatiotemporal characteristics of SCP parameters and their [...] Read more.

Snow cover phenology (SCP) is critical to the climate system. China has the most comprehensive snow cover distribution in the middle and low latitudes and has shown dramatic changes over the past few decades. However, the spatiotemporal characteristics of SCP parameters and their sensitivity to meteorological factors (temperature and precipitation) under different conditions (altitude, snow cover classification, or season) in China are insufficiently studied. Therefore, using improved daily MODIS cloud-gap-filled (CGF) snow-cover-extent (SCE) products, the spatiotemporal characteristics (distribution and variation) and respond to climate of snow cover area (SCA), snow cover start (SCS), snow cover melt (SCM), and snow cover days (SCD) are explored from 2000 to 2020. The results show that in the past 20 years, snow cover in China has demonstrated a trend of decreasing SCA, decreasing SCD, advancing SCS, and advancing SCM, with SCM advancing faster than SCS. The greatest snowfall occurs in January, mainly in northeastern China, northern Xinjiang, and the Tibet Plateau. Spatially, the slope of SCP was mainly within ±0.5 day/year (d/y) Statistics indicated that the area proportion where SCD is significantly reduced is greater than increased; SCD, SCS, and SCM are shortened or advanced in three snow-covered area classifications. Moreover, compared with precipitation, the significantly correlated regions (6–47.2% more than precipitation) and correlation degree (1.23–8.33 times precipitation in significantly correlated snow cover classification) between temperature and SCP in different seasons are larger. For stable snow-covered areas (SSA), SCD are mainly affected by spring temperature below 1500 m and mainly by autumn temperature above 1500 m; the precipitation is more affected in autumn. The correlation of SCP with temperature and precipitation has obvious spatial and seasonal differences and shows characteristic variation with altitude. These results can provide important data support for climate prediction, hydrological research, and disaster warning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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23 pages, 5533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Snow Cover Phenology on the Vegetation Green-Up Date on the Tibetan Plateau

by Jingyi Xu, Yao Tang, Jiahui Xu, Song Shu, Bailang Yu, Jianping Wu and Yan Huang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 3909; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14163909 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3039

Abstract

Variations in snow cover resulting from global warming inevitably affect alpine vegetation growth on the Tibetan Plateau (TP), but our knowledge of such influences is still limited. Here, we investigated the relationship between snow cover and alpine vegetation during 2003–2020 on the TP [...] Read more.

Variations in snow cover resulting from global warming inevitably affect alpine vegetation growth on the Tibetan Plateau (TP), but our knowledge of such influences is still limited. Here, we investigated the relationship between snow cover and alpine vegetation during 2003–2020 on the TP using the satellite-derived vegetation green-up date (GUD) and metrics of snow cover phenology, namely the snow cover onset date (SCOD), snow cover end date (SCED), snow cover duration (SCD), and snowmelt onset date (SMOD). In this study, we first analyzed the spatiotemporal changes in the GUD and the snow cover phenology metrics on the TP. Pearson’s correlation, gray relation analysis, and linear regression were then employed to determine the impact of snow cover phenology on the GUD. Overall, with the SCOD, SCED, and SMOD delayed by one day, the GUD was advanced by 0.07 and 0.03 days and was postponed by 0.32 days, respectively, and a one-day extension of the SCD resulted in a 0.04-day advance in the GUD. In addition, the roles of vegetation type, topography, and climate factors (temperature and precipitation) in modulating the relationships between snow cover phenology and the GUD were evaluated. The GUD of alpine steppes was negatively correlated with the SCOD and SCED, contrary to that of the other vegetation types. The GUD of alpine steppes was also more sensitive to snow cover phenology than that of other vegetation types. The increase in elevation generally enhanced the sensitivity of the GUD to snow cover phenology. The GUD showed a stronger negative sensitivity to the SCD in warmer areas and a stronger positive sensitivity to the SMOD in wetter areas. Our findings revealed the essential impact of variation in snow cover phenology on the GUD and indicated the complex interference of environmental factors in the relationship between snow cover and vegetation growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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21 pages, 12912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trend in Satellite-Observed Vegetation Cover and Its Drivers in the Gannan Plateau, Upper Reaches of the Yellow River, from 2000 to 2020

by Yu Liang, Zhengyang Zhang, Lei Lu, Xia Cui, Jikun Qian, Songbing Zou and Xuanlong Ma

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(16), 3849; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14163849 - 9 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2875

Abstract

The Yellow River basin (YRB) has played an important role in the forming of Chinese civilization. Located in the upper reaches of the YRB and the southeastern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), the Gannan Plateau (GP), which consists of mainly alpine and [...] Read more.

The Yellow River basin (YRB) has played an important role in the forming of Chinese civilization. Located in the upper reaches of the YRB and the southeastern edge of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP), the Gannan Plateau (GP), which consists of mainly alpine and mountain ecosystems, is one of the most important water conservation areas for the Yellow River and recharges 6.59 billion cubic meters of water to the Yellow River each year, accounting for 11.4% of the total runoff of the Yellow River. In the past 30 years, due to climate change and intense human activities, the GP is facing increasing challenges in maintaining its ecosystem integrity and security. Vegetation is a central component of the terrestrial ecosystem and is also key to maintaining ecosystem functioning and services. To form sound ecological restoration projects for the GP and the upper reaches of the YRB in general, this study assesses the trend in FVC (Fractional Vegetation Cover) and its drivers across the GP by integrating high-resolution satellite remote sensing images and meteorological data from 2000 to 2020. Results showed that the mean value of FVC for the entire GP between 2000 and 2020 was 89.26%. Aridity was found to be the main factor that determined the spatial distribution of FVC, while ecosystem type exhibited the secondary effect with forests having the highest FVC within each aridity class. From 2000 to 2020, the FVC in 84.11% of the study area did not exhibit significant change, though 10.32% of the study area still experienced a significant increase in FVC. A multi-factor analysis revealed that precipitation surpassed temperature as the main driver for the FVC trend in semi-arid and semi-humid areas, while this pattern was reversed in humid areas. A further residual analysis indicated that human activities only played a minor role in determining the FVC trend in most naturally vegetated areas of the study area, except for semi-arid crops where a significant positive role of human influences on the FVC trend was observed. The findings highlight the fact that aridity and vegetation types interact to explain the relative sensitivity of alpine and mountain ecosystems to climate trends and human influences. Results from this study provide an observational basis for better understanding and pattern prediction of ecosystem functioning and services in the GP under future climate change, which is key to the success of the national strategy that aims to preserve ecosystem integrity and promote high-quality development over the entire YRB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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22 pages, 16847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Classification of Alpine Grasslands in Cold and High Altitudes Based on Multispectral Landsat-8 Images: A Case Study in Sanjiangyuan National Park, China

by Yanqiang Wei, Wenwen Wang, Xuejie Tang, Hui Li, Huawei Hu and Xufeng Wang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(15), 3714; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14153714 - 3 Aug 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3095

Abstract

Land-use–cover change (LUCC)/vegetation cover plays a critical role in Earth system science and is a reflection of human activities and environmental changes. LUCC will affect the structure and function of ecosystems and a series of other terrestrial surface processes, such as energy exchange, [...] Read more.

Land-use–cover change (LUCC)/vegetation cover plays a critical role in Earth system science and is a reflection of human activities and environmental changes. LUCC will affect the structure and function of ecosystems and a series of other terrestrial surface processes, such as energy exchange, water circulation, biogeochemical circulation, and vegetation productivity. Therefore, accurate LUCC mapping and vegetation cover monitoring are the bases for simulating the global carbon and hydrological cycles, studying the interactions of the land surface and climate, and assessing land degradation. Based on field GPS surveys and UAV data, with cloud-free and snow/glacier algorithms and the SVM classifier to train and model alpine grassland, the alpine grassland and LUCC were extracted by using Landsat-8 OLI satellite images in Sanjiangyuan National Park in this paper. The latest datasets of vegetation types with 30 m × 30 m spatial resolution in the three parks were prepared and formed. The classification results show that the SVM classifier could better distinguish the major land-use types, and the overall classification accuracy was very high. However, in the alpine grassland subcategories, the classification accuracies of the four typical grasslands were relatively low, especially between desert steppes and alpine meadows, and desert steppes and alpine steppes. It manifests the limitations of Landsat-8 multispectral remote sensing imageries in finer-resolution grassland classifications of high-altitude alpine mountains. The method can be utilized for other multispectral satellite imageries with the same band matching, such as Landsat 7, Landsat 9, Sentinel-2, etc. The method described in this paper can rapidly and efficiently process annual alpine grassland maps of the source areas of the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Lancang River. It can provide timely and high-spatial-resolution datasets for supporting scientific decisions for the sustainable management of Sanjiangyuan National Park. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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14 pages, 7231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Snowpack on the Land Surface Phenology in the Tianshan Mountains, Central Asia

by Tao Yang, Qian Li, Qiang Zou, Rafiq Hamdi, Fengqi Cui and Lanhai Li

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3462; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143462 - 19 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

The accumulation and ablation processes of seasonal snow significantly affect the land surface phenology in a mountainous ecosystem. However, the ability of snow to regulate the alpine land surface phenology in the arid regions is not well described in the context of climate [...] Read more.

The accumulation and ablation processes of seasonal snow significantly affect the land surface phenology in a mountainous ecosystem. However, the ability of snow to regulate the alpine land surface phenology in the arid regions is not well described in the context of climate change. The impact of snowpack changes on land surface phenology and its driving factors were investigated in the Tianshan Mountains using the land surface phenology metrics derived from satellited products and a snow dataset from downscaled regional climate model simulations covering the period from 1983 to 2015. The results demonstrated that the annual mean start of growing season (SOS) and length of growing season (LOS) experienced a significant (p < 0.05) decrease and increase with a rate of −2.45 days/decade and 2.98 days/decade, respectively. The significantly advanced SOS and increased LOS were mainly seen in the Western Tianshan Mountains and Ili Valley regions with elevations from 2500 to 3500 m a.s.l and below 3000 m a.s.l, respectively. During the early spring, the significant decline in snow cover fraction (SCF) could advance the SOS. In contrast, snowmelt amount and annual maximum snow water equivalent (SWE) have an almost equally substantial positive correlation with annual maximum vegetation greenness. In particular, the SOS of grassland was the most sensitive to variations of snow cover fraction during early spring than that of other vegetation types, and their strong relationship was mainly located at elevations from 1500 to 2500 m a.s.l. Its greenness was significantly controlled by the annual maximum snow water equivalent in all elevation bands. Both decreased SCF and increased temperature in the early spring caused a significant advance of the SOS, consequently prolonging the LOS. Meanwhile, more SWE and snowmelt amount could significantly promote vegetation greenness by regulating the soil moisture. The results can improve the understanding of the snow ecosystem services in the alpine regions under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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24 pages, 31973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Resolution Snow-Covered Area Mapping in Forested Mountain Ecosystems Using PlanetScope Imagery

by Aji John, Anthony F. Cannistra, Kehan Yang, Amanda Tan, David Shean, Janneke Hille Ris Lambers and Nicoleta Cristea

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3409; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143409 - 15 Jul 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3612

Abstract

Improving high-resolution (meter-scale) mapping of snow-covered areas in complex and forested terrains is critical to understanding the responses of species and water systems to climate change. Commercial high-resolution imagery from Planet Labs, Inc. (Planet, San Francisco, CA, USA) can be used in environmental [...] Read more.

Improving high-resolution (meter-scale) mapping of snow-covered areas in complex and forested terrains is critical to understanding the responses of species and water systems to climate change. Commercial high-resolution imagery from Planet Labs, Inc. (Planet, San Francisco, CA, USA) can be used in environmental science, as it has both high spatial (0.7–3.0 m) and temporal (1–2 day) resolution. Deriving snow-covered areas from Planet imagery using traditional radiometric techniques have limitations due to the lack of a shortwave infrared band that is needed to fully exploit the difference in reflectance to discriminate between snow and clouds. However, recent work demonstrated that snow cover area (SCA) can be successfully mapped using only the PlanetScope 4-band (Red, Green, Blue and NIR) reflectance products and a machine learning (ML) approach based on convolutional neural networks (CNN). To evaluate how additional features improve the existing model performance, we: (1) build on previous work to augment a CNN model with additional input data including vegetation metrics (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and DEM-derived metrics (elevation, slope and aspect) to improve SCA mapping in forested and open terrain, (2) evaluate the model performance at two geographically diverse sites (Gunnison, Colorado, USA and Engadin, Switzerland), and (3) evaluate the model performance over different land-cover types. The best augmented model used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) along with visible (red, green, and blue) and NIR bands, with an F-score of 0.89 (Gunnison) and 0.93 (Engadin) and was found to be 4% and 2% better than when using canopy height- and terrain-derived measures at Gunnison, respectively. The NDVI-based model improves not only upon the original band-only model’s ability to detect snow in forests, but also across other various land-cover types (gaps and canopy edges). We examined the model’s performance in forested areas using three forest canopy quantification metrics and found that augmented models can better identify snow in canopy edges and open areas but still underpredict snow cover under forest canopies. While the new features improve model performance over band-only options, the models still have challenges identifying the snow under trees in dense forests, with performance varying as a function of the geographic area. The improved high-resolution snow maps in forested environments can support studies involving climate change effects on mountain ecosystems and evaluations of hydrological impacts in snow-dominated river basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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17 pages, 4262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Retrieval of Fractional Snow Cover over High Mountain Asia Using 1 km and 5 km AVHRR/2 with Simulated Mid-Infrared Reflective Band

by Fangbo Pan, Lingmei Jiang, Zhaojun Zheng, Gongxue Wang, Huizhen Cui, Xiaonan Zhou and Jinyu Huang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(14), 3303; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143303 - 8 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1848

Abstract

Accurate long-term snow-covered-area mapping is essential for climate change studies and water resource management. The NOAA AVHRR/2 provides a unique data source for long-term, large-spatial-scale monitoring of snow-covered areas at a daily scale. However, the value of AVHRR/2 in mapping snow-covered areas is [...] Read more.

Accurate long-term snow-covered-area mapping is essential for climate change studies and water resource management. The NOAA AVHRR/2 provides a unique data source for long-term, large-spatial-scale monitoring of snow-covered areas at a daily scale. However, the value of AVHRR/2 in mapping snow-covered areas is limited, due to its lack of a shortwave infrared band for snow/cloud discrimination. We simulated the reflectance in the 3.75 µm mid-infrared band with a radiative transfer model and then developed three fractional-snow-cover retrieval algorithms for AVHRR/2 imagery at 1 km and 5 km resolutions. These algorithms are based on the multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis algorithm (MESMA), snow index (SI) algorithm, and non-snow/snow two endmember model (TEM) algorithm. Evaluation and comparison of these algorithms were performed using 313 scenarios that referenced snow-cover maps from Landsat-5/TM imagery at 30 m resolution. For all the evaluation data, the MESMA algorithm outperformed the other two algorithms, with an overall accuracy of 0.84 (0.85) and an RMSE of 0.23 (0.21) at the 1 km (5 km) scale. Regarding the effect of land cover type, we found that the three AVHRR/2 fractional-snow-cover retrieval algorithms have good accuracy in bare land, grassland, and Himalayan areas; however, the accuracy decreases in forest areas due to the shading of snow by the canopy. Regarding the topographic effect, the accuracy evaluation indices showed a decreasing and then increasing trend as the elevation increased. The accuracy was worst in the 4000–5000 m range, which was due to the severe snow fragmentation in the High Mountain Asia region; the early AVHRR/2 sensors could not effectively monitor the snow cover in this region. In this study, by increasing the number of bands of AVHRR/2 1 km data for fractional-snow-cover retrieval, a good foundation for subsequent long time series kilometre- resolution snow-cover monitoring has been laid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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14 pages, 2834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alpine Grassland Reviving Response to Seasonal Snow Cover on the Tibetan Plateau

by Ying Ma, Xiaodong Huang, Qisheng Feng and Tiangang Liang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(10), 2499; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102499 - 23 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

Season snow cover plays an important role in vegetation growth in alpine regions. In this study, we analyzed the spatial and temporal variations in seasonal snow cover and the start of the growing season (SOS) of alpine grasslands and preliminarily studied the mechanism [...] Read more.

Season snow cover plays an important role in vegetation growth in alpine regions. In this study, we analyzed the spatial and temporal variations in seasonal snow cover and the start of the growing season (SOS) of alpine grasslands and preliminarily studied the mechanism by which snow cover affects SOS changes by modifying the soil temperature (ST) and soil moisture (SM) in spring. The results showed that significant interannual trends in the SOS, snow end date (SED), snow cover days (SCD), ST, and SM existed over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) in China from 2000 to 2020. The SOS advanced by 2.0 d/10 a over the TP over this period. Moreover, the SOS showed advancing trends in the eastern and central parts of the TP and a delayed trend in the west. The SED and SCD exhibited an advancing trend and a decreasing trend in high-elevation areas, respectively, and the opposite trends in low-elevation areas. The ST showed a decreasing trend in low-elevation areas and an increasing trend in high-elevation areas. The SM tended to increase in most areas. The effects of the seasonal snow cover on the ST and SM indirectly influenced the SOS of alpine grasslands. The delayed SEDs and more SCD observed herein could provide increasingly wet soil conditions optimal for the advancement of the SOS, while less snow and shorter snow seasons could delay the SOS of alpine grasslands on the TP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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21 pages, 7817 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Reconstruction of MODIS Normalized Difference Snow Index Products Using U-Net with Partial Convolutions

by De Xing, Jinliang Hou, Chunlin Huang and Weimin Zhang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(8), 1795; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14081795 - 8 Apr 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2279

Abstract

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover product is one of the prevailing datasets for global snow monitoring, but cloud obscuration leads to the discontinuity of ground coverage information in spatial and temporal. To solve this problem, a novel spatial-temporal missing information reconstruction [...] Read more.

Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover product is one of the prevailing datasets for global snow monitoring, but cloud obscuration leads to the discontinuity of ground coverage information in spatial and temporal. To solve this problem, a novel spatial-temporal missing information reconstruction model based on U-Net with partial convolutions (PU-Net) is proposed to recover the cloud gaps in the MODIS Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) products. Taking the Yellow River Source Region as a study case, in which the snow cover is characterized by shallow, fast-changing and complex heterogeneity, the MODIS NDSI product in the 2018–2019 snow season is reconstructed, and the reconstruction accuracy is validated with simulated cloud mask and in situ snow depth (SD) observations. The results show that under the simulated cloud mask scenario, the mean absolute error (MAE) of the reconstructed missing pixels is from 4.22% to 18.81% under different scenarios of the mean NDSI of the patch and the mask ratio of the applied mask, and the coefficient of determination (R

^{2}

) ranges from 0.76 to 0.94. The validation based on in situ SD observations at 10 sites shows good consistency, the overall accuracy is increased by 25.66% to 49.25% compared with the Aqua-Terra combined MODIS NDSI product, and its value exceeds 90% at 60% of observation stations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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18 pages, 17885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glacier Mass Balance in the Manas River Using Ascending and Descending Pass of Sentinel 1A/1B Data and SRTM DEM

by Lili Yan, Jian Wang and Donghang Shao

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(6), 1506; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14061506 - 20 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3308

Abstract

Mountain glaciers monitoring is important for water resource management and climate changes but is limited by the lack of a high-quality Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and field measurements. Sentinel 1A/1B satellites provide alternative data for glacier mass balance. In this study, we tried [...] Read more.

Mountain glaciers monitoring is important for water resource management and climate changes but is limited by the lack of a high-quality Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and field measurements. Sentinel 1A/1B satellites provide alternative data for glacier mass balance. In this study, we tried to generate DEMs from C-band Sentinel 1A/1B ascending and descending pass SLC images and evaluate the overall accuracy of INSAR DEMs based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM and ICESat/GLAS. The low Standard Deviation (STD)and Root Means Square Error (RMSE) displayed the feasibility of Sentinel 1A/1B satellites for DEM generation. Glacier elevation changes and glacier mass balance were estimated based on INSAR DEM and SRTM DEM. The results showed that the most glaciers have exhibited obvious thinning, and the mean annual glacier mass balance between 2000 and 2020 was −0.18 ± 0.1 m w.e.a⁻¹. The south-facing and-east facing aspects, slope and elevation play an important role on glacier melt. This study demonstrates that ascending and descending orbit data of Sentinel-1A/1B satellites are promising for the detailed retrieval of surface elevation changes and mass balance in mountain glaciers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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15 pages, 8740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cloud–Snow Confusion with MODIS Snow Products in Boreal Forest Regions

by Xiaoyan Wang, Chao Han, Zhiqi Ouyang, Siyong Chen, Hui Guo, Jian Wang and Xiaohua Hao

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(6), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14061372 - 11 Mar 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2343

Abstract

Reliable cloud masks in Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover products have a high potential to improve the retrieval of snow properties. However, cloud–snow confusion is a popular problem in MODIS snow cover products, especially in boreal forest areas. A large amount [...] Read more.

Reliable cloud masks in Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover products have a high potential to improve the retrieval of snow properties. However, cloud–snow confusion is a popular problem in MODIS snow cover products, especially in boreal forest areas. A large amount of forest snow is misclassified as clouds because of the low normalized difference snow index (NDSI), and excessive cloud masks limit the application of snow products. In addition, ice clouds are easily misclassified as snow due to their similar spectral characteristics, which leads to snow commission errors. In this paper, we quantitatively evaluated the cloud–snow confusion in Northeast China and found that snow-covered forests and transition zones from snow-covered to snow-free areas are prone to being misclassified as clouds, while clouds are less likely to be misclassified as snow. A temporal-sequence cloud–snow-distinguishing algorithm based on the high-frequency observation characteristics of the Himawarri-8 geostationary meteorological satellite is proposed. In the temporal-sequence images acquired from that satellite, the NDSI variance in cloud pixels should be greater than that of snow because clouds vary over time, while snow is relatively stable. In the MODIS snow cover products, the cloud pixels with NDSI variance lower than a threshold are identified as cloud-free areas and attributed their raw NDSI value, while the snow pixels with NDSI variance greater than the threshold are marked as clouds. We applied this method to MOD10A1 C6 in Northeast China. The results showed that the excessive cloud masks were greatly eliminated, and the new cloud mask was in good agreement with the real cloud distribution. At the same time, some possible ice clouds which had been misclassified as snow for their spectral characteristics similar to those of snow were identified correctly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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21 pages, 12430 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Dispersion and Non-Negative Matrix Factorization of SAR Backscattering as Tools for Monitoring Snow Depth Evolution in Mountain Areas: A Case Study at Central Pyrenees (Spain)

by Antonella Amoruso, Luca Crescentini and Riccardo Costa

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(3), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030653 - 29 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2310

Abstract

Accurate knowledge of snow cover extent, depth (SD), and water equivalent is essential for studying the global water cycle, climate, and energy–mass exchange in the Earth–atmosphere system, as well as for water resources management. Ratio between SAR cross- and co-polarization backscattering ( [...] Read more.

Accurate knowledge of snow cover extent, depth (SD), and water equivalent is essential for studying the global water cycle, climate, and energy–mass exchange in the Earth–atmosphere system, as well as for water resources management. Ratio between SAR cross- and co-polarization backscattering (

σ_{V H} / σ_{V V}

) was used to monitor SD during snowy months in mountain areas; however, published results refer to short periods and show lack of correlation during non-snowy months. We analyze Sentinel-1A images from a study area in Central Pyrenees to generate and investigate (i) time series of

σ_{V H} / σ_{V V}

spatial dispersion, (ii) spatial distribution of pixelwise

σ_{V H} / σ_{V V}

temporal standard deviation, and (iii) fundamental modes of

σ_{V H} / σ_{V V}

evolution by non-negative matrix factorization. The spatial dispersion evolution and the first mode are highly correlated (correlation coefficients larger than 0.9) to SD evolution during the whole seven-year-long period, including snowy and non-snowy months. The local incidence angle strongly affects how accurately

σ_{V H} / σ_{V V}

locally follows the first mode; thus, areas where it predominates are orbit-dependent. When combining ascending- and descending-orbit images in a single data matrix, the first mode becomes predominant almost everywhere snow pack persists during winter. Capability of our approach to reproduce SD evolution makes it a very effective tool. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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8 pages, 1503 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Backscattering Analysis Utilizing Relaxed Hierarchical Equivalent Source Algorithm (RHESA) for Scatterers in Vegetation Medium

by Syabeela Syahali, Hong-Tat Ewe, Gobi Vetharatnam and Li-Jun Jiang

Remote Sens. 2022, 14(19), 5051; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14195051 - 10 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1404

Abstract

The backscattering cross section of cylindrical and elliptical disk-shaped scatterers was investigated in this study, utilising a new numerical solution method called the relaxed hierarchical equivalent source algorithm (RHESA). The results were compared with the backscattering cross section of similar cases, using analytical [...] Read more.

The backscattering cross section of cylindrical and elliptical disk-shaped scatterers was investigated in this study, utilising a new numerical solution method called the relaxed hierarchical equivalent source algorithm (RHESA). The results were compared with the backscattering cross section of similar cases, using analytical method validation from literature. The objective of this research was to look into the possibility of replacing analytical methods with the RHESA in volume scattering calculations, and integrating it into modelling the backscattering of layers of dense media for microwave remote sensing in vegetation; as RHESA provides the freedom to model any shape of scatterer, as opposed to the limited shapes available of scatterers in analytical method models. The results demonstrated a good match, indicating that the RHESA may be a good fit for modelling more complicated media, such as vegetation, in future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Mountain Vegetation and Snow Cover)

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