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Effects of Tissue Flossing on Athletic Performance Measures: A Systematic Review
Comparison of Vertical Jump Force–Time Metrics Between ACL-Injured and Healthy Semi-Professional Male and Female Soccer Players
The Efficacy of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Athletes for Injury Management, Training Response, and Athletic Performance: A Systematic Review
Male and Female Perceptions of Supervision During Strength Training

Journal Description

Sports

Sports is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal published monthly online by MDPI. The Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS), The European Sport Nutrition Society (ESNS) and The European Network of Sport Education (ENSE) are affiliated with Sports and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Sport Sciences ) / CiteScore - Q2 (Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 19.1 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.8 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-4663

Latest Articles

13 pages, 1482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Sports in Building Resilience: A Machine Learning Approach to the Psychological Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children and Adolescents

by Giulia Di Martino, Carlo della Valle, Alessandra di Cagno, Giovanni Fiorilli, Giuseppe Calcagno and Daniele Conte

Sports 2025, 13(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020037 (registering DOI) - 3 Feb 2025

(1) Background: This study evaluated whether physical activity and sports serve as a protective factor in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic long-term consequences. (2) Methods: A survey of 1702 participants (8–18 years) used the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), and [...] Read more.

(1) Background: This study evaluated whether physical activity and sports serve as a protective factor in mitigating COVID-19 pandemic long-term consequences. (2) Methods: A survey of 1702 participants (8–18 years) used the Impact of Event Scale (IES), Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), and Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC). Participants were categorized based on their engagement in sports, cultural activities, or sedentary behaviors. Statistical analysis included non-parametric tests, CHAID models, and clustering. (3) Results: In total, 65.5% of participants experienced minimal to mild anxiety, and 34.5% reported moderate to severe anxiety. The main predictor of depression is the sample age, followed by the training experience. Depressive symptoms were identified in 71.3% of participants (75.7% adolescents; 64% children). Adolescents with longer training experience (67.6%) showed lower depression compared to those with shorter experience (77.2%). For post-traumatic stress, 38% of children and 46% of adolescents exceeded cut-off scores for significant symptoms, with age and training level identified as key predictors. Among children, sport experience with low weekly frequency was associated with the lowest depression rates (59.5%). (4) Conclusions: Four years after the pandemic, a high percentage of anxiety and depression disorders is observed in the youth population, particularly among adolescents. Sports appear to slightly alleviate this serious condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

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10 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Different Neuromuscular Recovery Strategies in Elite Youth Female Football Players

by Silvia Sedano and Sergio Maroto-Izquierdo

Sports 2025, 13(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020036 - 29 Jan 2025

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of various active recovery strategies in youth female soccer players during competitive tournaments with limited recovery periods (i.e., 24–48 h). Twenty-two elite under-17 female football players participated in this randomized controlled trial, which encompassed fourteen 90 [...] Read more.

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of various active recovery strategies in youth female soccer players during competitive tournaments with limited recovery periods (i.e., 24–48 h). Twenty-two elite under-17 female football players participated in this randomized controlled trial, which encompassed fourteen 90 min official matches. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three recovery protocols: passive stretching, foam rolling, or lumbopelvic mobility exercises, which were implemented ten minutes after each match. Countermovement jump with free arm (CMJA) height was measured pre-intervention, immediately post-intervention, and 5 h post-intervention. Wellness perception was evaluated 24 h later. Significant enhancements in CMJA height were observed immediately after all recovery protocols and at 5 h post-intervention compared with pre-intervention (p < 0.001). The lumbopelvic mobility protocol yielded the most substantial improvement, significantly surpassing both stretching and foam rolling. Moreover, significant increases in wellness perception were observed following the foam rolling (p < 0.001, ES = 0.95) and mobility (p < 0.05, ES = 0.88) protocols, with the mobility protocol demonstrating a marginally larger effect size than stretching. Active recovery strategies significantly enhanced neuromuscular function and wellness perception in under-17 female soccer players. Lumbopelvic mobility exercises exhibited superior efficacy, suggesting that they should be prioritized in post-match recovery regimens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Prevention and Rehabilitation of Training Injuries)

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16 pages, 1208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

They’re Only Human! Tension and Stress Predict Performance of Softball Umpires in National Championships

by Ronald J. Houison, Andrea Lamont-Mills, Michael Kotiw and Peter C. Terry

Sports 2025, 13(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020035 - 28 Jan 2025

The psychology of sports officials is often overlooked in psychology research. The present study addressed this disparity by exploring relationships among the mood, stress, and performance of Australian softball umpires. Six male and two female participants aged 25–68 years (M = 48.95 [...] Read more.

The psychology of sports officials is often overlooked in psychology research. The present study addressed this disparity by exploring relationships among the mood, stress, and performance of Australian softball umpires. Six male and two female participants aged 25–68 years (M = 48.95 ± 17.39 years) each completed the Brunel Mood Scale before games and provided saliva samples on multiple occasions prior to and after officiating games at two Australian National Softball Championships. Data from 65 games were analysed with performance assessed using Softball Australia’s umpire assessment tool. A significant positive relationship (p < 0.01) was found between tension scores and umpire performance. Using a stepwise regression analysis, tension scores and baseline cortisol level collectively explained 22.6% of the variance in umpire performance scores. These findings suggest that umpires require an optimal level of tension in the period leading up to competition to perform successfully, supporting the relationship between tension and performance first proposed by the inverted-U hypothesis. Full article

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12 pages, 239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gambling and Gaming: A Comparative Study of Professional Footballers Versus the General Population

by Rafael González-Moret, Isabel Almodóvar-Fernández, María Gimeno, Ana Blanco, Paula Sánchez-Thevenet, Héctor Usó, Gonzalo Haro and Antonio Real-Fernández

Sports 2025, 13(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020034 - 24 Jan 2025

(1) Background: Elite sport can increase vulnerability to developing mental health pathologies. The purpose of the study is to determine the frequency at which these behavioural disorders appear in elite footballers and evaluate their relationship with other addictions. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Elite sport can increase vulnerability to developing mental health pathologies. The purpose of the study is to determine the frequency at which these behavioural disorders appear in elite footballers and evaluate their relationship with other addictions. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between November 2020 and January 2022 on 306 participants. The variables of gambling and gaming were studied. The different groups were compared using Chi-squared tests. Probabilities exceeding 95% (p-values < 0.05) and residuals results greater than 2 or less than −2 were considered significant. (3) Results: There were significant differences between the two groups in terms of alcohol (p < 0.001), tobacco (p < 0.001), and cannabis (p = 0.016) consumption. We also found differences between those who had a history of a nervous disease (p = 0.015). 6.6% of the of football players had a probable diagnosis of a gambling disorder compared to 1% in the general population (p = 0.011). Among the pathological and non-pathological cases of gambling in the football population, significant differences were found between those with a salary of EUR 900–1500/month (p = 0.027) or a history of a nervous pathology (p = 0.021). (4) Conclusions: This study showed that professional football players were vulnerable to mental health pathologies related to gambling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sport Psychology)

17 pages, 643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Early Athletic Identity Formation and Development: Perceptions of Elite Gaelic Athletes

by Marion Geary, Niamh Kitching, Mark Campbell and Frank Houghton

Sports 2025, 13(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020033 - 24 Jan 2025

Background/Objectives: Athletic identity (AI) is an important part of an elite athlete’s self-concept and can positively impact sports performance, but over-emphasis can lead to potentially negative outcomes. Identity theory suggests that identity is shaped by individuals’ roles, group affiliations, self-perceptions, and important changes [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Athletic identity (AI) is an important part of an elite athlete’s self-concept and can positively impact sports performance, but over-emphasis can lead to potentially negative outcomes. Identity theory suggests that identity is shaped by individuals’ roles, group affiliations, self-perceptions, and important changes in personal circumstances. Athlete transitions are changes that occur in an athletes’ athletic and/or non-athletic circumstances, which can impact identity development. Using identity theory, this study aimed to explore the athletic transitions important in early AI formation and development in elite Gaelic athletes. Methods: Nine athletes were purposively sampled and participated in semi-structured interviews that were analysed using a six-step thematic analysis. Results: Findings indicate that the initiation, development, and mastery transitions in sport influence AI formation and align with the identity theory precepts of roles, groups, and persons in identity development. AI formation and development is individualised and shaped by perceived athlete competence, associated external validation, and the increased professionalism and personal commitment associated with higher levels of performance. Conclusion: We call for a greater emphasis to be placed on the development of multi-faceted identity profiles in elite Gaelic athletes. Full article

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21 pages, 1454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adherence to the Singapore Integrated 24 h Activity Guidelines for Pre-Primary School Children Before, During and After the COVID-19 Lockdown in Singapore

by Seow Ting Low, Terence Buan Kiong Chua, Dan Li and Michael Chia

Sports 2025, 13(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020032 - 23 Jan 2025

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the lives of pre-primary school children in Singapore where increased infection rates prompted lockdown measures that altered children’s daily routines. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the pandemic on the lifestyle behaviours and health quality [...] Read more.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the lives of pre-primary school children in Singapore where increased infection rates prompted lockdown measures that altered children’s daily routines. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the pandemic on the lifestyle behaviours and health quality of 3134 children aged 5 to 6 years across three periods: pre-COVID, COVID-19 lockdown, and COVID-19 endemicity. Data were collected using the Surveillance of Digital Media Habits in Early Childhood Questionnaire (SMALLQ^®) to measure on- and off-screen media habits of children and the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PaedQL) to assess children’s health quality. Adherence to physical activity (PA) guidelines dropped from 32.7% pre-COVID to 27.4% during lockdown but improved to 34.4% in endemicity (p < 0.05). Sleep (SL) adherence followed a similar pattern, decreasing from 33.4% to 27.9% before rising to 40.6% (p < 0.05). Screen time (ST) adherence significantly declined during lockdown (16.7% to 10.8%, p < 0.001). Weak positive correlations with all PaedQL metrics were observed across periods, except during endemicity (p < 0.05). Concerted efforts involving key stakeholders must be made to mitigate the negative effects of the pandemic on children’s lifestyle behaviours and QoL, ensuring they are better prepared for the transition to primary school. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Motor Behavior and Child Health)

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10 pages, 960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of a Short-Term Supplemental Breathwork Protocol on the Aerobic Performance of Recreational Runners

by Adrian T. Wolff, Sara R. Sherman and Craig A. Horswill

Sports 2025, 13(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020031 - 23 Jan 2025

We investigated the effects of a functional breathing program on the aerobic performance of recreational runners. Runners participated in an aerobic endurance training program with functional breathing (FBP; n = 8, 34.8 ± 5.1 yrs, 25.3 ± 2.5 kg·m²) or without [...] Read more.

We investigated the effects of a functional breathing program on the aerobic performance of recreational runners. Runners participated in an aerobic endurance training program with functional breathing (FBP; n = 8, 34.8 ± 5.1 yrs, 25.3 ± 2.5 kg·m²) or without functional breathing (CON; n = 8, 29 ± 5 yrs, 23 ± 2 kg·m²). The treatment group underwent daily breathing exercises, and nasal-only breathing during low-intensity sessions of the training program. The primary outcome variables measured before and after the program included the following: the breath-hold time at rest, the duration and VO_2max with nasal-only breathing, and the VO_2max with normal breathing during a graded running test. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA (p < 0.05). We found a significant group x time interaction for breath-hold time (∆ from PRE: +1.9 s [CON], +11.7 s [FBP]; p = 0.04; d = 1.13). However, the changes in the time and VO_2max with nasal-only breathing, and in the VO_2max with normal breathing, did not differ between the FBP and CON groups. A small but significant time (main) effect for the increase in VO_2max (~3.0%, p < 0.05) suggested that both groups had adequate stimuli for physiological adaptations. The four-week supplementary functional breathing protocol increased the breath-hold time, but not the maximum nasal-only breathing time, nasal-only breathing VO_2max, or VO_2max, in recreational runners. Full article

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16 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Athleticism and Sports Profiles Throughout Machine Learning Applied to Heart Rate Variability

by Tony Estrella and Lluis Capdevila

Sports 2025, 13(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020030 - 22 Jan 2025

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were [...] Read more.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were developed: Model 1 (M1) classified athletes and non-athletes using 856 observations from high-performance athletes and 494 from non-athletes. Model 2 (M2) identified an individual soccer player within a team based on 105 observations from the player and 514 from other team members. Three ML algorithms were applied —Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Support Vector Machine (SVM)— and SHAP values were used to interpret the results. In M1, the SVM algorithm achieved the highest performance (accuracy = 0.84, ROC AUC = 0.91), while in M2 Random Forest performed best (accuracy = 0.92, ROC AUC = 0.94). Based on these results, we propose an athleticism index and a soccer identification index derived from HRV data. The findings suggest that ML algorithms, such as SVM and RF, can effectively generate indices based on HRV for identifying individuals with athletic characteristics or distinguishing athletes with specific sports profiles. These insights underscore the importance of integrating HRV assessments systematically into training regimens for enhanced athletic evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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18 pages, 2677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Test–Retest Reliability and Concurrent Validity of Photoplethysmography Finger Sensor to Collect Measures of Heart Rate Variability

by Donald W. Rogers, Andreas T. Himariotis, Thomas J. Sherriff, Quentin J. Proulx, Megan T. Duong, Sabrina E. Noel and David J. Cornell

Sports 2025, 13(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020029 - 22 Jan 2025

The purpose of the current study was to determine the test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of a photoplethysmography (PPG) finger sensor when collecting heart rate variability (HRV) metrics in reference to electrocardiography (ECG) and heart rate monitor (HRM) devices. Five minutes of R-R [...] Read more.

The purpose of the current study was to determine the test–retest reliability and concurrent validity of a photoplethysmography (PPG) finger sensor when collecting heart rate variability (HRV) metrics in reference to electrocardiography (ECG) and heart rate monitor (HRM) devices. Five minutes of R-R interval data were collected from 45 participants (23 females; age: 23.13 ± 4.45 yrs; body mass index: 25.39 ± 4.13 kg/m²) in the supine and seated positions in testing sessions 48 h apart. Moderate-to-excellent test–retest reliability of the HRV data collected from the PPG sensor was identified (ICC_2,1 = 0.60–0.93). Additionally, similar standard errors of the mean, coefficient of variation, and minimal detectable change metrics were observed across all devices. Statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences were identified in the HRV data between the PPG sensor and ECG and HRM devices; however, these differences were interpreted as trivial-to-small (g = 0.00–0.59). Further, the PPG sensor tended to only overestimate HRV metrics by <0.5 ms and near perfect relationships (r = 0.91–1.00) and very large-to-near perfect agreement (CCC = 0.81–1.00) were identified between collection methods. The PPG sensor demonstrated adequate test–retest reliability and concurrent validity in both the supine and seated resting positions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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12 pages, 1049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Technical, Tactical, and Time–Motion Match Profiles of the Forwards, Midfielders, and Defenders of a Men’s Football Serie A Team

by Rocco Perrotta, Alexandru Nicolae Ungureanu, Domenico Cherubini, Paolo Riccardo Brustio and Corrado Lupo

Sports 2025, 13(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020028 - 21 Jan 2025

The present study aimed to verify the (1) differences between players’ roles in relation to technical and tactical and time–motion indicators, and the (2) relationships between individual time–motion and technical and tactical indicators for each role in a men’s Italian football Serie A [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to verify the (1) differences between players’ roles in relation to technical and tactical and time–motion indicators, and the (2) relationships between individual time–motion and technical and tactical indicators for each role in a men’s Italian football Serie A team. A total of 227 performances were analyzed (28 players: 8 forwards, FWs; 11 midfielders, MDs; 9 defenders, DFs). Technical and tactical indicators, such as ball possession (played balls, successful passes, successful playing patterns, lost balls, ball possession time), offensive play (total and successful dribbles, crosses, assists), and shooting (total shots, shots on target) were obtained by means of Panini Digital (DigitalSoccer Project S.r.l). In addition, a time–motion analysis included the total distance, distances covered at intensities of 16.0–19.8 km/h, 19.8–25.2 km/h, and over 25.2 km/h, the average recovery time between metabolic power peaks, and burst occurrence, the latter of which was performed by means of a 18 Hz GPS device (GPexe Pro2 system tool) worn by the players. Results showed role-specific differences: MDs covered more distance, while DFs had better ball possession. MDs and DFs had more successful playing patterns, and MDs and FWs performed more dribbles and shots. Strong correlations (p < 0.01, ρ > 0.8) were found between bursts and assists for FWs, high-intensity running and ball possession for MDs, and distance, dribbling, and shots for DFs. These findings highlight the importance of individual and tailored training programs to optimize role-specific performance demands. Full article

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11 pages, 415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Contractile Characteristics Among Various Muscle Groups in Youth Elite Female Team Handball Players Compared to a Control Group

by Milan Petronijević, Katarina Ohnjec and Milivoj Dopsaj

Sports 2025, 13(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020027 - 21 Jan 2025

Muscular strength and explosiveness are generally known as factors that affect physical performance. Physical ability modeling has a profound connection with long-term athlete development and talent identification. The purpose of the current study was to investigate differences in contractile characteristics (maximal isometric force [...] Read more.

Muscular strength and explosiveness are generally known as factors that affect physical performance. Physical ability modeling has a profound connection with long-term athlete development and talent identification. The purpose of the current study was to investigate differences in contractile characteristics (maximal isometric force and maximal rate of force development) among various muscle groups in youth elite female team handball players (n = 35, 16.6 ± 1.1 years) compared to a control group (n = 28, 16.7 ± 1.1 years). The following tests were performed: isometric non-dominant hand grip, isometric dominant hand grip, isometric deadlift, isometric standing leg extension, and isometric bilateral ankle extension. For each subject, the maximal isometric force and maximal rate of force development were derived from the isometric strength tests. The research analyzed a total of twenty-four variables, presented in both absolute and relative values. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences among all pairs of variables in the absolute values of maximal isometric force (Λ = 0.531, F = 10.07, p = 0.000) and maximal rate of force development (Λ = 0.692, F = 5.08, p = 0.001) between the two groups. The most significant difference was found in the grip of the dominant hand, where the impact of the difference was 43.6% and 37.0% for the absolute values of force and explosiveness. Conversely, no differences were observed between the pairs of variables representing the relative values across the two subject groups, except for the dominant hand grip relative force (p = 0.006). The results provide information about the contractile potentials of important muscle groups in the game of handball, which could help in adapting strength training according to the specifics of the strength and explosivity development of young female handball players. Full article

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13 pages, 623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Muscle Performance in Young Soccer Players: Exploring the Impact of Resisted Sprint Training and Its Relationship with Distance Covered

by Felipe Hermosilla-Palma, Juan Francisco Loro-Ferrer, Pablo Merino-Muñoz, Nicolás Gómez-Álvarez, Rodrigo Zacca, Hugo Cerda-Kohler, Ciro Brito, Jorge Pérez-Contreras, Moacyr Portes-Junior and Esteban Aedo-Muñoz

Sports 2025, 13(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010026 - 20 Jan 2025

Background: Speed training with resisted sprints has been shown to positively affect neuromuscular performance in soccer players. Various loads, ranging from 10% to 120% of body mass, have demonstrated performance improvements across the spectrum. However, the impact of sprint distance with optimal load [...] Read more.

Background: Speed training with resisted sprints has been shown to positively affect neuromuscular performance in soccer players. Various loads, ranging from 10% to 120% of body mass, have demonstrated performance improvements across the spectrum. However, the impact of sprint distance with optimal load on these adaptive responses has yet to be thoroughly described. Objective. To analyze the influence of sprint distance in resisted sprints on muscle performance in young soccer players. Methods. This quantitative study utilized a pre-post experimental design. The sample consisted of 24 young soccer players (15.3 ± 0.68 years; 61.4 ± 7.08 kg; 1.60 ± 0.06 m) randomized into three groups (10, 20, and 30 m) and subjected to 12 sessions of resisted sprint training over six weeks. The volume was homogenized across groups, with a total distance of 120 m for each. The intervention’s effect was analyzed through performance in the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), countermovement jump (CMJ), modified 505 agility test (505 m), and linear sprint tests. Differences were analyzed using a mixed ANOVA, incorporating a between-subjects factor (training group) and a within-subjects factor (pre- and post-intervention). Results. Time-dependent differences were observed in all groups for peak force (PF) (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.62), time to PF (TPF) (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.53), impulse at 50 (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.57), 100 (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.60), and 200 ms (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.67) in IMTP; jump height by impulse-momentum (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.64), rate of force development (p = 0.04; η²p = 0.14), yielding impulse (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.49), and concentric impulse (p = 0.01; η²p = 0.19) in CMJ; time (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.46) in 505 m; and average speed in linear sprint (p = 0.003; η²p = 0.36), with moderate to large effect sizes, regardless of the distance covered. No differences were observed for the interaction between the time* and group or between groups. Conclusion. Performance improvements were independent of the sprint distance, with no differences between training groups. Distances between 10 and 30 m may enhance muscle performance in young soccer players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effects of High-Intensity Training Variations on Biomechanic, Physiology, Biochemistry and Performance in Athletes)

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15 pages, 568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrocardiographic Assessment of National-Level Triathletes: Sinus Bradycardia and Other Electrocardiographic Abnormalities

by Mike Climstein, Kenneth S. Graham, Michael Stapelberg, Joe Walsh, Mark DeBeliso, Kent Adams, Trish Sevene and Chad Harris

Sports 2025, 13(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010025 - 16 Jan 2025

Background: High-intensity endurance training induces specific cardiac adaptations, often observed through electrocardiographic (ECG) changes. This study investigated the prevalence of ECG abnormalities in national-level Australian triathletes compared to sedentary controls. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving 22 triathletes and 7 sedentary [...] Read more.

Background: High-intensity endurance training induces specific cardiac adaptations, often observed through electrocardiographic (ECG) changes. This study investigated the prevalence of ECG abnormalities in national-level Australian triathletes compared to sedentary controls. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving 22 triathletes and 7 sedentary controls. Standard 12-lead ECGs assessed resting heart rate, ECG intervals, and axis deviation. Peak oxygen consumption was evaluated in triathletes to correlate with ECG indices and left ventricular mass, derived via echocardiography. Results: Triathletes exhibited significantly lower resting heart rates (53.8 vs. 72.1 bpm, −34%, p = 0.04), shorter QRS durations (0.088 vs. 0.107 ms, −21.6%, p = 0.01), and longer QT intervals (0.429 vs. 0.358 ms, +16.6%, p = 0.01) compared to controls. Sinus bradycardia was present in 68.2% of triathletes, with varying severity. First-degree atrioventricular block was identified in 13.6% of athletes, and left ventricular hypertrophy was confirmed in 18 triathletes via echocardiography. A significant positive relationship was identified between VO₂peak and left ventricular mass (r = 0.68, p = 0.003). Conclusions: National-level triathletes exhibited ECG and structural cardiac adaptations consistent with high-intensity endurance training. Echocardiography is recommended for the accurate identification of LVH. These findings highlight the need for comprehensive cardiac evaluation in athletes to distinguish between physiological and pathological adaptations. Full article

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10 pages, 914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Hook Maneuver on Oxygen Saturation Recovery After −40 m Apnea Dive—A Randomized Crossover Trial

by Francisco DeAsís-Fernández, Álvaro Reina-Varona, Evangelos Papotsidakis, Juan Lafuente and José Fierro-Marrero

Sports 2025, 13(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010024 - 15 Jan 2025

To reduce the risk of syncope, trained breath-hold divers (BHDs) use a specialized breathing technique after surfacing called “hook breathing” (HB). It consists of a full inspiration followed by a Valsalva-like maneuver and with subsequent exhalation performed against resistance to generate continuous positive [...] Read more.

To reduce the risk of syncope, trained breath-hold divers (BHDs) use a specialized breathing technique after surfacing called “hook breathing” (HB). It consists of a full inspiration followed by a Valsalva-like maneuver and with subsequent exhalation performed against resistance to generate continuous positive airway pressure during exhalation. This study analyzed the influence of HB on oxygen saturation recovery after a −40 m depth apnea dive in trained BHDs. Thirteen BHDs performed two dives to −40 m at different days, one followed by HB after a dive and the other using usual breathing (UB). To detect signs of lung edema, ultrasound B-line measurements were conducted before, 10 min after the dive, and within 1 h after the dive. To detect oxygen saturation recovery, pulse oximetry was recorded before and immediately after surfacing. Both groups exhibited significant increases in SpO₂ over time (UB: F (2.25, 24.7) = 22.1, p < 0.001, ηg2 = 0.612; HB: F (2.11, 23.2) = 29.0, p < 0.001, ηg2 = 0.688). Significant differences in SpO₂ were observed between the HB and UB groups at 30–45 s post-apnea, with higher SpO₂ values in the HB group; between 1.64 and 5.08% of SpO₂ in favor of the HB intervention. Four participants showed ultrasound B-lines within ten minutes post-dive. After a 40 m apnea dive, the results revealed significant SpO₂ recovery from 30 s to 45 s, with the HB recovering more rapidly. No differences were found at earlier (10–25 s) or later time points (50–60 s). Full article

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22 pages, 299 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Supervised vs. Self-Managed Exercise Therapy for Improving Shoulder Function After Traumatic Dislocation and Sprain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Daniel Koska, Robert Zetzsche, Tobias A. Mayer and Christian Maiwald

Sports 2025, 13(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010023 - 14 Jan 2025

Trauma-induced shoulder dislocations and sprains rank among the most common upper extremity injuries, with contact sports accounting for the majority of cases. These injuries often lead to substantial impairments in joint function and long recovery times, requiring targeted therapeutic interventions to restore mobility [...] Read more.

Trauma-induced shoulder dislocations and sprains rank among the most common upper extremity injuries, with contact sports accounting for the majority of cases. These injuries often lead to substantial impairments in joint function and long recovery times, requiring targeted therapeutic interventions to restore mobility and prevent recurrent injuries. Given the pivotal role of exercise therapy in restoring shoulder function, this study systematically reviews the literature on the comparative effectiveness of supervised versus self-managed exercise therapy following acute shoulder trauma. PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL, Embase, Web of Science, and Science Direct were searched up to 13 December 2024. Conservative and post-surgical treatment modes were analyzed separately. Five studies with a total 689 participants were included (conservative: n = 538 across two studies; post-surgical: n = 151 across three studies). Both treatment modes showed similar pooled effects (standardized mean difference, SMD_conservative:

- 0.35

, 95% CI [

- 1.39

, 0.69]; SMD_{post-surgical}:

- 0.23

, 95% CI [

- 1.21

, 0.75]), with a marginal improvement in shoulder function favoring supervised therapy. Four studies had some risk of bias, and one had serious risk; GRADE certainty was low. Supervised exercise therapy may offer slightly greater functional improvements over self-managed training, but evidence is limited by heterogeneity and low certainty. Further high-quality trials with standardized protocols and improved adherence tracking are needed to establish more definitive conclusions and guide clinical decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Injuries, Rehabilitation and New Technologies)

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12 pages, 5028 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Racket Handle Design on Table Tennis Topspin Forehand Rally Performance Among Beginner Players

by Ryushi Kumamoto, Ping Yeap Loh, Yuqi He, Enrico Ferlinghetti, Matteo Lancini and Tadashi Uno

Sports 2025, 13(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010022 - 14 Jan 2025

Physical inactivity is a major global public health concern, and table tennis offers a low-impact, engaging way to promote physical activity across various age groups. However, many beginners struggle to maintain effective participation due to their lower skill levels. Therefore, the development and [...] Read more.

Physical inactivity is a major global public health concern, and table tennis offers a low-impact, engaging way to promote physical activity across various age groups. However, many beginners struggle to maintain effective participation due to their lower skill levels. Therefore, the development and reinforcement of stable grip techniques is crucial because it will help beginners achieve sustainable improvements in performance. This will provide additional opportunities to increase physical activity, and therefore overall health, across all age groups. Thus, in this study, we investigate the effects of a prototype table tennis handle on the racket angle and performance of beginners. The prototype handle features a 20° tilt to assist the player in maintaining a stable topspin forehand grip during play. The participants were randomized into three groups, Groups A, B, and C, which used the prototype handle, standard handle, and practiced with the prototype but performed tests with the standard handle, respectively. The participants executed topspin forehand strokes in approximately 30 min of practice, and data on racket angles, swing mechanics, success rates, and ball landing positions were collected. The results showed that Group A exhibited a larger racket open angle and a smaller racket face Angle than the other groups. However, the groups showed no significant differences in hit positions or overall success rates. Our results suggest that although the prototype handle can influence racket angles and some performance aspects, individual differences and swing mechanics should be considered. Full article

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10 pages, 729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Pickleball Intervention on the Self-Esteem and Symptoms of Patients with Schizophrenia

by Tsai-Chieh Chien and Chao-Chien Chen

Sports 2025, 13(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010021 - 14 Jan 2025

Background: Schizophrenia is classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top ten diseases contributing to the global medical economic burden. Some studies have pointed out that exercise is effective for physical and mental health, as well as cognition. We [...] Read more.

Background: Schizophrenia is classified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top ten diseases contributing to the global medical economic burden. Some studies have pointed out that exercise is effective for physical and mental health, as well as cognition. We hypothesized that participation in pickleball intervention would lead to improved self-esteem and reduced psychiatric symptoms in schizophrenia patients. Method: We recruited participants with schizophrenia from a long-term care facility and a regional hospital, dividing them into two groups based on the institutions. The experimental group underwent a nine-week pickleball exercise intervention, with sessions three times a week, each lasting 90 min, and a Dink ball test was conducted weekly. Questionnaires on self-esteem and the short-form health survey were collected both before and after the intervention. Result: This trial included 30 patients, divided equally into the experimental group (n = 15) and the control group (n = 15). After the nine-week pickleball intervention, there were no significant differences between the experimental and control groups in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (p = 0.153) or the Brief Symptom Rating Scale (BSRS-5) (p = 0.289). However, the Dink test scores in the experimental group showed significant improvements in physical activity capabilities and attention over time, with average hit counts increasing from 5.3 ± 1.5 to 10.7 ± 2.3 (p < 0.01). Conclusions: Although the pickleball intervention did not yield significant differences in self-esteem and symptom measures between groups, the improvements observed in physical performance and attention in the experimental group suggest that exercise remains a feasible complementary approach for managing schizophrenia symptoms. Further research with larger sample sizes is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Physical Activity Interventions for Improving Depression, Anxiety and Distress)

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20 pages, 1231 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Beyond the Finish Line” the Epidemiology of Injury and Illness in Professional Cycling: Insights from a Year-Long Prospective Study

by Thomas Fallon, Rory Nolan, John Peters and Neil Heron

Sports 2025, 13(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010020 - 14 Jan 2025

Introduction: Injury and illness rates within cycling are a growing concern for riders, medical personnel, and event organisers. This study is the first to document injury and illness rates in professional cyclists throughout one competitive season including training and racing. Methods: A prospective, [...] Read more.

Introduction: Injury and illness rates within cycling are a growing concern for riders, medical personnel, and event organisers. This study is the first to document injury and illness rates in professional cyclists throughout one competitive season including training and racing. Methods: A prospective, longitudinal study was conducted with 47 professional cyclists (30 males and 17 females) over the 2024 season (1 November 2023–31 October 2024). Injuries and illnesses were defined and recorded following the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus guidelines for injury reporting in sports and its cycling-specific extension. Data collection utilised a centralised online hub, integrating exposure metrics (e.g., training hours and kilometres) and medical records. All data were processed on a Macintosh computer using the Microsoft Office and R statistics packages epi tools, binom.test function, and ggplot. (V.4.3.2, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Ethical approval was obtained from Queens University Belfast, number MHLS 23_175. Results: Fifty-five injury events were logged, with 1.15 (±0.359) locations injured per incidence and 1.57 (±1.06) injury types per incident. The overall combined injury rate for racing was 4.14 (95% CI: 2.65–5.79) per 1000 h of exposure, with the overall combined rate for training being 1.23 (95% CI: 0.8–1.7) per 1000 h. The injury risk ratio (RR) for injury during racing and training for females was 11.10 (95% CI: 2.69–37.60), and the RR for males was 10.24 (95% CI: 3.84–43.06), both indicating there is a significantly higher risk of injury during racing compared to training. Abrasions were the most common injury type, with fractures being the most burdensome injury. The most common illness was upper respiratory, 0.63 (95% CI: 0.27–0.99) per year for males and 1.11 (95% CI: 0.64–1.59) per year for females. Saddle sores were the second most common at 0.20 (95% CI: 0.04, 0.36) per year for males and 0.08 (95% CI: 0–0.18) per year for females. Conclusions: This study provides the first comprehensive, season-long surveillance data for injuries and illnesses in male and female professional road cycling, highlighting the significant differences in injury profiles between racing and training. These results underscore the need for targeted injury prevention strategies and the establishment of a standardised injury and illness framework for professional cycling. Full article

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11 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Physical Activity Level, Strength, Balance, and Body Composition on Perceived Health in Healthy Adults

by José Manuel Delfa-de-la-Morena, Pedro Pinheiro Paes, Frederico Camarotti Júnior, Débora Priscila Lima de Oliveira, Rubem Cordeiro Feitosa, Byanka Santos Cavalcante de Oliveira, Juan-José Mijarra-Murillo, Aranzazu Martínez Moya, Miriam García-González and Francisco De Asís-Fernández

Sports 2025, 13(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010019 - 13 Jan 2025

Background: Nowadays, not only is a high, long life expectancy desired, but also longevity with quality. Quality of life in adulthood is a multidimensional construct related to the perception of one’s own health, psychological and socio-emotional factors, functionality for daily activities, and body [...] Read more.

Background: Nowadays, not only is a high, long life expectancy desired, but also longevity with quality. Quality of life in adulthood is a multidimensional construct related to the perception of one’s own health, psychological and socio-emotional factors, functionality for daily activities, and body composition. Objective: This study evaluates the effects of physical activity level (PAL), strength, balance, and body composition on perceived health in healthy adults. Methods: An observational, cross-sectional study with consecutive, non-probabilistic inclusion of cases was conducted. Body fat percentage (BFP) was measured by DXA. Physical activity level was assessed using accelerometry. The strength index (S_Index) was estimated using dynamometry. Postural control was assessed through posturography. The composite equilibrium score from the Sensory Organization Test (SOT_CES) was conducted to measure postural stability under various sensory conditions using dynamic posturography. Perceived health was calculated using the SF36 questionnaire, which detects health states, both positive and negative. A linear regression model was generated between each domain of SF36 with SOT_CES, BFP, PAL, and S_Index. Results: A total of 64 males with a mean age of 55 ± 5 years and a mean body mass index of 27 ± 4 kg/m² were recruited. Results showed a negative correlation between physical function (ß = −0.7; t = −3.163; p = 0.003; R² = 23.7%) and general health (ß = −0.227; t = −3.425; p = 0.001; R² = 17.4%) with BFP. Also, it showed a negative correlation between physical function (ß = 0.047; t = −2.643; p = 0.011; R² = 17.5%) and general health (ß = 0.016; t = −3.044; p = 0.004; R² = 14.6%) with S_Index. On the other hand, no relation was observed between SF36 and SOT_CES. Finally, only the emotional role showed a positive correlation (ß = −0.02; t = −2.629; p = 0.011; R² = 23.1%) with PAL. Conclusion: A lower BFP and higher S_Index are associated with increased physical function and general health. Also, the higher the PAL, the greater the emotional health. On the other hand, no relation was observed between SF36 and the balance detected from SOT_CES. Full article

34 pages, 1683 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Narrative Review of the Velocity and Acceleration Profile in Football: The Influence of Playing Position

by Charles Cotteret, Ángel González-de-la-Flor, Jaime Prieto Bermejo, Jaime Almazán Polo and Sergio L. Jiménez Saiz

Sports 2025, 13(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010018 - 10 Jan 2025

To enhance athletic performance and reduce the risk of injury, load quantification has allowed for a better understanding of the individual characteristics of the physical demands on soccer players during training or competition. In this regard, it appears crucial to summarize scientific evidence [...] Read more.

To enhance athletic performance and reduce the risk of injury, load quantification has allowed for a better understanding of the individual characteristics of the physical demands on soccer players during training or competition. In this regard, it appears crucial to summarize scientific evidence to provide useful information and future directions related to the speed and acceleration profiles of male soccer players. This review aims to evaluate the findings reflected in the available literature on both profiles in football, synthesizing and discussing data from scientific articles, while providing insights into quantification methods, employed thresholds, tracking systems, terminology, playing position, and microcycle day. Therefore, it is hoped that this narrative review can support objective decision-making in practice for coaches, sports scientists, and medical teams regarding individualized load management and the appropriate selection of metrics, to explore current trends in soccer player profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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