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23 pages, 7457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on Runoff and Sediment Production of the Fully Weathered Granite Backfill Slope under Heavy Rain in Longling, Yunnan Province

by Kai Gao, Zhigang Kong, Yanqing Li, Fei Zhao, Baoxin Cai, Dehua Shi and Ren Wang

Sustainability 2024, 16(4), 1454; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16041454 - 8 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 867

Abstract

Heavy or intermittent rainfall can cause slopes to become unstable and erode, resulting in significant damage, loss of life, and destruction of property. Targeted management solutions are based on an analysis of slopes’ flow generation and sediment production patterns during periods of rainfall. [...] Read more.

Heavy or intermittent rainfall can cause slopes to become unstable and erode, resulting in significant damage, loss of life, and destruction of property. Targeted management solutions are based on an analysis of slopes’ flow generation and sediment production patterns during periods of rainfall. This study used a fully granite backfill slope as its research subject and examined the features of slope erosion during intermittent rainfall. We examined the processes of slope flow generation and soil erosion during intermittent rain through indoor artificially simulated rainfall experiments. Three intermittent rainfall events with a 220 mm/h intensity were designed during the experiment. Each rainfall event lasted for 60 min, with an interval of 60 min between the events. By analyzing multiple rainfall events, this study reveals the patterns of runoff and sediment yield on different slopes in response to variations in rainfall intensity and slope gradient. The runoff volume on other slope surfaces exhibits a similar pattern in reaction to changes in rainfall events. As the frequency of rainfall events increases, the surface runoff tends to be higher. Additionally, with variations in slope steepness, the runoff volume generally follows an increasing trend. Notably, the slope with a 20° incline shows the smallest runoff volume. The sediment yield on different slope surfaces gradually increases as the slope increases. In particular, on a 20° slope, the sediment yield experiences a substantial increase, indicating that the impact of the slope on the sediment yield becomes more pronounced. In different rainfall events, the morphology of the slope changes due to the influence of gravity and hydraulics, resulting in oscillations in both the average runoff rate and sediment yield. Furthermore, as the slope steepens, the amplitude of these oscillations increases. The process of slope erosion involves three stages: raindrop splash erosion, runoff erosion, and collapse damage. The sequence of slope damage locations is as follows: footslope, mid-slope, and hilltop. For the backfilled slope of completely weathered granite, the artificial slope can be controlled to around 20°. Erosion on the slope mainly occurs after the formation of gullies, and slope management should focus on preventing gully formation before it happens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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20 pages, 2676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation and Global Climate Models (CMIP6) to Predict Potential Soil Erosion Associated with Climate Change in the Talas District, Kazakhstan

by Moldir Rakhimova, Kanat Zulpykharov, Aizhan Assylbekova, Nazym Zhengissova and Omirzhan Taukebayev

Sustainability 2024, 16(2), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16020574 - 9 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1935

Abstract

Changes in precipitation patterns, a fundamental aspect of climate change, can significantly impact soil erosion processes. This article aims to evaluate the current state of soil erosion in the Talas area utilizing the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Climate projections for the [...] Read more.

Changes in precipitation patterns, a fundamental aspect of climate change, can significantly impact soil erosion processes. This article aims to evaluate the current state of soil erosion in the Talas area utilizing the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Climate projections for the study were obtained through the CMIP6 Global Climate Model (GCM) and the climatic data were integrated into the RUSLE to simulate potential changes in soil erosion patterns. The mean annual soil erosion rate, observed over the research duration, ranges from 0 to 127 (t y⁻¹). Results indicate that 56.29% of the study area is characterized by a low susceptibility to soil erosion, with an additional 33.56% classified as at moderate risk and 7.36% deemed at high risk of erosion. Furthermore, the evaluation reveals an average increase in precipitation levels compared to the baseline. Models project a rise of 21.4%, 24.2%, and 26.4% by the years 2030, 2050, and 2070, respectively. Concurrently, the study observes a parallel increase in soil loss with precipitation, demonstrating a rise of 34%, 35.5%, and 38.9% for the corresponding time periods. Also, the spatially distributed results show that the southern part of the territory of the Talas region has been impacted by erosion over the past and will also be in the future period. These findings underscore the intricate interplay between climate-induced changes in precipitation and their significant impact on soil erosion. The results provide essential insights for developing targeted soil conservation strategies in the Talas area under evolving climatic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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18 pages, 30236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Runoff Erosion Power in Fujiang River Basin Based on the SWAT Model

by Kaixin Jiang, Shuhong Mo, Kunxia Yu, Pingzhi Li and Zhanbin Li

Sustainability 2023, 15(21), 15642; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152115642 - 6 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1218

Abstract

As an erosion dynamic index considering the three elements of flood, runoff erosion power (REP) can better reflect the influence of precipitation, underlying surface, and other factors on the erosion and sediment transport (ST) of flood events. Therefore, it is of great significance [...] Read more.

As an erosion dynamic index considering the three elements of flood, runoff erosion power (REP) can better reflect the influence of precipitation, underlying surface, and other factors on the erosion and sediment transport (ST) of flood events. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the variation characteristics of the REP and its relationship with ST in the basin for soil erosion control. In this paper, the Fujiang River Basin (FRB) was selected to analyze the characteristics of runoff and ST at four hydrological stations in the basin from 2009 to 2018, including Santai, Jiangyou, Shehong, and Xiaoheba. Combined with the concept of the REP, six kinds of water–sediment relationship were compared and analyzed. Furthermore, by constructing the SWAT model, the spatial distribution characteristics of runoff, ST, and REP in the FRB were analyzed in depth, and the spatial scale effect of the REP in the basin was explored. The conclusions are as follows: (1) The power function relationship between REP and sediment transport modulus (STM) is better than the other five kinds of water–sediment relationship. (2) Based on the SWAT model, the evaluation indexes of the monthly runoff and ST of the four hydrological stations are credible, good, and excellent in the rating period (RP) and the validation period (VP). (3) The annual REP in the main stream from upstream to downstream is mostly a single change trend, while in each primary tributary, the overall value is larger than that of the main stream and the interannual difference is obvious. The average annual REP generally shows the distribution characteristics of ‘large at the junction of the upper and middle reaches and small in the rest of the area’. With the increase in the control area, the multi-year average REP has a decreasing trend, especially when the catchment area above the sub-watershed is >7318 km²; the change of the multi-year average REP is single and obviously slows down, with an average value of 23.8 mm·m³·s⁻¹·km⁻². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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20 pages, 3316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Compound Response Relationship between Hydro-Sedimentary Variations and Dominant Driving Factors: A Case Study of the Huangfuchuan basin

by Jingwei Yao, Zhanbin Li, Wenyi Yao, Peiqing Xiao, Pan Zhang, Mengyao Xie, Jingshu Wang and Shasha Mei

Sustainability 2023, 15(18), 13632; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813632 - 12 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 893

Abstract

The Huangfuchuan basin is one of the major sources of coarse sediment in the Yellow River and has long been a focal point and challenge for the conservation of soil and water in the Yellow River Basin. In this study, we analyzed the [...] Read more.

The Huangfuchuan basin is one of the major sources of coarse sediment in the Yellow River and has long been a focal point and challenge for the conservation of soil and water in the Yellow River Basin. In this study, we analyzed the phase differentiation characteristics of water–sediment variations during the flood season in the Huangfuchuan basin using a long-term dataset. We elucidated the complex response relationship between water–sediment variations and meteorological factors and human activities, which is of great significance for revealing the mechanisms of water–sediment variations in the region and establishing a scientific water–sediment regulation system in the basin. Statistical methods such as the Mann–Kendall trend test, Sen’s slope estimation, Pettitt nonparametric test, and principal component analysis were employed to identify and analyze the trends and dominant driving factors before and after the water–sediment variations and abrupt changes in parameters such as rainfall and temperature in the Huangfuchuan basin. Additionally, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the extent of the contribution of climate and human activities to water–sediment variations in the Huangfuchuan basin. The study revealed that the year 2000 was a turning point for water–sediment variations, with decreases of 11.3%, 76.7%, and 85.1% in flood season rainfall, flood season runoff, and flood season sediment transport, respectively. Despite significant changes in the underlying surface conditions of the Huangfuchuan basin, the relationship between flood season sediment transport and flood season runoff remained a power–law relationship. In the absence of obvious abrupt changes in temperature, rainfall, and other meteorological factors, the changes in the underlying surface caused by human activities are the main cause of the changes in runoff and sediment yield in the Huangfuchuan basin. The current level of vegetation restoration in the Huangfuchuan basin is still relatively low, making it difficult to exert stronger control on sediment yield during the flood season. Meanwhile, human activities, primarily based on engineering measures, play a more significant role in the control of soil and water loss in the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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16 pages, 3909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using PLE-SEM to Quantify the Impacts of Natural and Human Factors on Vegetation Change: A Case Study of the Jialing River Basin

by Xingyue Guo, Tian Wang, Zhanbin Li, Shengdong Cheng, Peng Li, Hongtao Li, Naichang Zhang, Xiaoping Liu and Ziyao Miao

Sustainability 2023, 15(17), 13089; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151713089 - 30 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1378

Abstract

Vegetation cover is an important indicator reflecting changes in terrestrial ecosystems and plays an important role in regulating and maintaining ecosystem stability. To investigate the spatial and temporal variations in the NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) and their intrinsic driving influences, this paper [...] Read more.

Vegetation cover is an important indicator reflecting changes in terrestrial ecosystems and plays an important role in regulating and maintaining ecosystem stability. To investigate the spatial and temporal variations in the NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) and their intrinsic driving influences, this paper uses trend analysis and a barycentric model to study the temporal and spatial variation characteristics of vegetation in the Jialing River Basin from 2000 to 2020, constructs PLS-SEMs (partial least squares structural equation models), analyzes the indirect and direct effects of latent and observable variables of surface, human activities, and climate on vegetation growth, and explores the driving processes of different levels of NDVI. The vegetation center gradually migrates northwards. The impact of surface factors on the NDVI is mainly direct and positive. The impact of human activities on the NDVI is mainly direct and negative. The impact of climate factors on the NDVI is mainly positive. The driving mechanisms of low and medium NDVI are relatively similar but tend to be opposite to those of high NDVI. Medium and high NDVI values are more influenced by observable variables. The research on vegetation change and its driving factors, through indirect and direct paths, illustrates the driving processes of different latent and observable variables of the NDVI in more detail and provides a theoretical basis for the implementation of ecological restoration projects and construction of ecological civilizations in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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19 pages, 22754 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Evolutionary Characteristics of Vegetation in Different Geomorphic Zones of Loess Plateau and Its Driving Factor Analysis

by Xue Li, Kunxia Yu, Xiang Zhang, Guojun Zhang, Zhanbin Li, Peng Li, Xiaoming Zhang, Yang Zhao and Wentao Ma

Sustainability 2023, 15(16), 12200; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151612200 - 9 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1128

Abstract

Based on MODIS NDVI and a meteorological dataset, this study analyzed the spatial and temporal variation characteristics of vegetation cover in different geomorphic zones of Loess Plateau (LP) from 2000 to 2020 with trend analysis, partial correlation, residual analysis and the CA–Markov method [...] Read more.

Based on MODIS NDVI and a meteorological dataset, this study analyzed the spatial and temporal variation characteristics of vegetation cover in different geomorphic zones of Loess Plateau (LP) from 2000 to 2020 with trend analysis, partial correlation, residual analysis and the CA–Markov method and discussed the driving factors. The research results show that: (1) There are spatial differences in vegetation coverage in different geomorphic regions. The Loess Hills and Forests zone (LF) exhibits the highest coverage, with a multi-year average of 86.64%, and the Arid Grassland (AG) has the poorest vegetation with only 8.53%. Overall, there has been significant improvement in vegetation coverage over the past two decades, although certain geomorphic zones, particularly the Highland Steppe zone (HS) and Alluvial Plains zone (AP), show signs of degradation. (2) Relative humidity has the greatest impact on vegetation among the three climate factors, i.e., relative humidity, precipitation and temperature. Relative humidity predominantly promotes vegetation in all geomorphic zones. Temperature generally inhibits vegetation growth, except in the Wind Sandy zone (WA) and AG. The impact of precipitation on vegetation depends on the region. A lag effect is observed, with temperature and humidity showing a one-month lag and precipitation showing a two-month lag on vegetation response. (3) Human activities play a crucial role in promoting vegetation, particularly in the WA zone, in which the percentage of area where human activities contribute to vegetation has changed from 13.80% to 86.85%, an increase of 73.05%, while the HS experiences an inhibitory effect due to overgrazing and water resource overutilization. Similarly, the AP zone’s vegetation growth is hindered by urban development and land use changes. (4) Land use change significantly impacts vegetation dynamics on the LP. Over the past two decades, the area of forest lawn increased by 122,800 km², which is 1.5 times more than the area of reduction. However, conversion to building land has hindered vegetation growth in certain regions. A comprehensive strategy is required to conserve land resources and promote healthy vegetation growth on the LP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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17 pages, 13223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evidence for Urbanization Effects on Eco-Environmental Quality: A Case Study of Guyuan City, China

by Binhua Zhao, Jianchun Han, Peng Li, Hongtao Li, Yangfan Feng, Bingze Hu, Guojun Zhang and Jie Li

Sustainability 2023, 15(11), 8629; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118629 - 25 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1984

Abstract

Achieving sustainable development and a good quality of life depends largely on the state of the ecological environment. This research is centered on Guyuan City and examines the changes in the ecological environment quality across space and time, based on Landsat imagery and [...] Read more.

Achieving sustainable development and a good quality of life depends largely on the state of the ecological environment. This research is centered on Guyuan City and examines the changes in the ecological environment quality across space and time, based on Landsat imagery and the remote sensing ecological environment index (RSEI) between 2000 and 2019. Correlation analysis and partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to investigate the environmental and human factors that affect the quality of the ecological environment. The results indicate a significant reduction in areas with a very-poor-quality ecological environment and a significant increase in excellent ecological environment management from 2000 to 2019, especially in eastern Guyuan City. The low-value area of the RSEI index gradually shifted from eastern counties to western areas relative to Guyuan City, exhibiting a significant change from a high-cluster distribution to a significantly discrete distribution. Elevation, precipitation, and total organic carbon showed significantly positive correlations with the RSEI, while temperature, land use, and pH showed significantly negative correlations. This study also reveals that topography and climate change have a positive impact on ecological changes, and urbanization is becoming less limiting for ecological improvement. In future ecological construction processes, emphasis should be placed on the terrain and climatic conditions to maximize the restoration of the ecological environment affected by urban construction. This work provides regional guidance for future sustainable development and high-quality development in the Yellow River Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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18 pages, 3173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Erosion Status Prediction Using a Novel Random Forest Model Optimized by Random Search Method

by Zahraa Tarek, Ahmed M. Elshewey, Samaa M. Shohieb, Abdelghafar M. Elhady, Noha E. El-Attar, Sherif Elseuofi and Mahmoud Y. Shams

Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7114; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097114 - 24 Apr 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2626

Abstract

Soil erosion, the degradation of the earth’s surface through the removal of soil particles, occurs in three phases: dislocation, transport, and deposition. Factors such as soil type, assembly, infiltration, and land cover influence the velocity of soil erosion. Soil erosion can result in [...] Read more.

Soil erosion, the degradation of the earth’s surface through the removal of soil particles, occurs in three phases: dislocation, transport, and deposition. Factors such as soil type, assembly, infiltration, and land cover influence the velocity of soil erosion. Soil erosion can result in soil loss in some areas and soil deposition in others. In this paper, we proposed the Random Search-Random Forest (RS-RF) model, which combines random search optimization with the Random Forest algorithm, for soil erosion prediction. This model helps to better understand and predict soil erosion dynamics, supporting informed decisions for soil conservation and land management practices. This study utilized a dataset comprising 236 instances with 11 features. The target feature’s class label indicates erosion (1) or non-erosion (−1). To assess the effectiveness of the classification techniques employed, six evaluation metrics, including accuracy, Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC), F1-score, precision, recall, and Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (AUC), were computed. The experimental findings illustrated that the RS-RF model achieved the best outcomes when compared with other machine learning techniques and previous studies using the same dataset with an accuracy rate of 97.4%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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19 pages, 22600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Vegetation Coverage Variation and Quantitative the Impact of Environmental Factors on Its Spatial Distribution in the Pisha Sandstone Area

by Lu Jia, Kunxia Yu, Zhanbin Li, Zongping Ren, Hongtao Li and Peng Li

Sustainability 2023, 15(7), 6054; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076054 - 31 Mar 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1339

Abstract

Over the past few decades, global vegetation cover has obviously changed, particularly in the Loess Plateau, due to vegetation restoration projects in China. This study focuses on the Pisha Sandstone area (PSA) and uses various statistical analysis methods to study the spatiotemporal changes [...] Read more.

Over the past few decades, global vegetation cover has obviously changed, particularly in the Loess Plateau, due to vegetation restoration projects in China. This study focuses on the Pisha Sandstone area (PSA) and uses various statistical analysis methods to study the spatiotemporal changes in vegetation coverage (VEC) at different time scales. The effects of topographical and climatic factors on VEC were also quantitatively evaluated using the GeoDetector in the spatial distribution. The results of the study confirm that, on an annual scale, the area with a significant increase in VEC has reached 63.89% (p < 0.05). Change points were diagnosed to have occurred mainly between 2002 and 2012 at different time scales, with the percentage of significant change points in VEC accounting for more than 20% from April to October (p < 0.05). Temporal and spatial changes in precipitation mainly caused VEC changes. In 45.35% of the region, precipitation was significantly and positively correlated with VEC at an annual scale (p < 0.05). Moreover, VEC was most conducive to growth and increase at 1050–1500 m above sea level and 0–21° slope, respectively. In most areas, there was an enhanced interaction relationship between various factors on VEC. Converting farmland to forests in suitable areas, selecting appropriate tree species, and improving soil is conducive to ecological restoration in the PSA in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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14 pages, 1915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deriving Land Management Practices for Reduced Nutrient Movement from an Agricultural Watershed Using the AGNPS Model

by Venkatachalam Kasthuri Thilagam, Sandrasekaran Manivannan and Om Pal Singh Khola

Sustainability 2023, 15(5), 4001; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054001 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1298

Abstract

The effect of nutrient management practices and the land-use system on nutrient enrichment in water resources of a hilly watershed was assessed with an event-based agricultural non-point source (AGNPS) model. The model intended to assess the runoff, sediment and nutrient loads in a [...] Read more.

The effect of nutrient management practices and the land-use system on nutrient enrichment in water resources of a hilly watershed was assessed with an event-based agricultural non-point source (AGNPS) model. The model intended to assess the runoff, sediment and nutrient loads in a typical hilly agricultural watershed. The model was calibrated, evaluated and applied in integration with GIS to predict the soil and nutrient loss. Two nutrient management scenarios were simulated with 25 and 50% reductions in the nutrient application from the present nutrient application. The third scenario was simulated by converting 25% of the agricultural land-use to tea plantations. A total of 15 simulations were run for the different rainfall intensities of the year 2017. The existing land-use scenario simulated the maximum soil loss and Nitrogen and phosphorus load of 8.23 t ha⁻¹, 22.8 and 5.0 kg ha⁻¹. The 50% nutrient reduction scenario reduced 48 and 36% of the Nitrogen and phosphorus load compared to the existing farmers’ practice. The same nutrient dose was compared with the STCR equation, developed for major crops such as potato and carrot in Nilgiris soil, and confirmed the sufficient nutrient supply to produce a sustainable yield. The conversion of 25% of the agricultural land-use to tea plantations reduced the soil loss by 10% from the current land-use. The Nitrogen and phosphorus load was reduced to 56 and 48%, respectively. Hence, the farmers may convert 25% of the land area to tea plantations and reduce 50% of the present fertilizer dose for the major vegetable crops with INM to reduce the nutrient enrichment in the surface water bodies. This study demonstrated the applicability of the AGNPS model in similar watersheds for deriving possible management strategies to reduce soil loss and nutrient movement. Further, the hydrological models can provide valuable insights for promptly prioritizing and making policy decisions in ungauged/data-scarce watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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25 pages, 17089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Soil Erosion Using a GIS-Based SEMMA in Post-Fire and Managed Watershed

by Seung Sook Shin, Sang Deog Park and Gihong Kim

Sustainability 2022, 14(12), 7339; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127339 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3319

Abstract

A large wildfire occurred due to strong winds and dry climates in the Gangwon province of South Korea. Thereafter, floods and sediment damage were caused by Typhoon Mitag in the burned areas. This study was an attempt to quantitatively evaluate the risk of [...] Read more.

A large wildfire occurred due to strong winds and dry climates in the Gangwon province of South Korea. Thereafter, floods and sediment damage were caused by Typhoon Mitag in the burned areas. This study was an attempt to quantitatively evaluate the risk of soil erosion in wildfire areas using the Soil Erosion Model for Mountain Areas (SEMMA) based on GIS, which was developed in South Korea. The model required the integration of maps of the main factors involved, i.e., rainfall erosivity, vegetation index, soil erodibility, and slope length and steepness. According to the model simulation results, high erosion rates of over 100 t/ha were concentrated within the wildfire areas. Sediment yields from the study watershed, including the wildfire areas, were estimated to be 40.33 t/ha for the 30-year frequency of rainfall, which is similar to those of the typhoon. The high risk of erosion was predominantly observed in the upper mountains, which are characterized by steep slopes, silt loam, and shallow soil depths within the wildfire areas. Urgent and excessive logging of burned trees further increased the risk of erosion. However, various treatment strategies were implemented to control soil erosion and sediment transport from the post-fire watershed. This study confirmed that temporal and spatial BMPs should be selected and enforced to reduce sediment disasters in wildfire areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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13 pages, 3147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Soil Aggregate Fractions, Stability, and Associated Organic Carbon and Nitrogen in Different Land Use Types in the Loess Plateau, China

by Yi Zhang, Peng Li, Xiaojun Liu and Lie Xiao

Sustainability 2022, 14(7), 3963; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14073963 - 27 Mar 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3144

Abstract

Rational land use can enhance soil nutrient sequestration and control erosion, but the mechanisms of the ecological restoration of soil-aggregate-associated carbon and nitrogen are still not well understood. A large-scale ecological restoration program was launched in the Loess Plateau during the 1990s. The [...] Read more.

Rational land use can enhance soil nutrient sequestration and control erosion, but the mechanisms of the ecological restoration of soil-aggregate-associated carbon and nitrogen are still not well understood. A large-scale ecological restoration program was launched in the Loess Plateau during the 1990s. The ecological restoration programs involved converting slope farmland to woodland, grassland, shrub land, and terrace. We studied their effects in relation to cultivated land as control on soil aggregate structure and stability and their associated organic carbon and total nitrogen contents to 60 cm soil depth in the Loess Plateau. Our results indicate that the restoration practices reduced soil aggregate fragmentation, increased soil structure stability, and transformed micro-aggregates into small and large aggregates. Comparing with the soil aggregate >0.25 mm in cultivated land, the amount in woodland, grassland, shrub land and terrace increased by 71%, 66%, 46%, and 35%, respectively, which improved soil health overall. The mean weight diameter of aggregate indicates that soil aggregate stability (SAS) increased and soil hydraulic erosion resistance improved. In conclusion, ecological restoration directly or indirectly affected SAS through the influence of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in different soil layers. Results of this study provide a scientific reference for understanding stabilization of soil aggregate and regional restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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14 pages, 4191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Effects of Rainfall Intensity and Initial Thaw Depth on Slope Erosion

by Yuanyi Su, Yang Zhang, Huanyuan Wang, Na Lei, Peng Li and Jie Wang

Sustainability 2022, 14(6), 3172; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063172 - 8 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1642

Abstract

Seasonal freeze–thaw processes have led to severe soil erosion in the middle and high latitudes of the world, so understanding the freeze–thaw erosion process is of great significance for soil and water conservation as well as for ecological engineering. The area affected by [...] Read more.

Seasonal freeze–thaw processes have led to severe soil erosion in the middle and high latitudes of the world, so understanding the freeze–thaw erosion process is of great significance for soil and water conservation as well as for ecological engineering. The area affected by freeze–thaw erosion in China exceeds 13% of the national territory. However, there is little data regarding the impact of rainfall intensity and initial thaw depth on soil erosion. Here, the effects that different rainfall intensities (0.6 mm/min, 0.9 mm/min and 1.2 mm/min) and different initial thaw depths (0 cm, 2 cm, 4 cm and 6 cm) had on the soil erosion process on the loess slope were studied under simulated rainfall conditions. The results showed that the infiltration rate decrease with prolonged runoff time, and then stabilized. Runoff occurred more quickly during increasingly intense rainfall, especially when little soil had thawed. The variation in runoff and sediment yield occurred in two stages: slow growth and rapid growth. As soil thawed to greater depths, rainfall intensity had less influence on the sediment. A linear relationship existed between the cumulative runoff and the sediment yield of all treatments. (R² > 0.92, p < 0.01). Rainfall intensity and thaw depth had interacting effects on erosion. At low rainfall intensities, the initial thaw depth played a leading role in the erosion process, but at higher rainfall intensities, rainfall intensity played a larger role. Stage II erosion amount accounted for more than 90% of the total erosion across all treatments. The results of this research provide a guide for furthering the understanding of the soil water erosion mechanism of thawing slopes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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20 pages, 22138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts and Projections of Land Use and Demographic Changes on Ecosystem Services: A Case Study in the Guanzhong Region, China

by Yiting Chen, Zhanbin Li, Peng Li, Yixin Zhang, Hailiang Liu and Jinjin Pan

Sustainability 2022, 14(5), 3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14053003 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2598

Abstract

Land use change and demographic factors directly or indirectly affect ecosystem services value, and the analysis of ecosystem services contributes to optimization of land planning, which is essential for regional sustainable development. In this study, ArcGIS 10.2, IDRISI 17.0 Selva and MATLAB software, [...] Read more.

Land use change and demographic factors directly or indirectly affect ecosystem services value, and the analysis of ecosystem services contributes to optimization of land planning, which is essential for regional sustainable development. In this study, ArcGIS 10.2, IDRISI 17.0 Selva and MATLAB software, value coefficient method, CA-Markov prediction model and population growth model were applied to analyze the spatial and temporal changes of land use trends and ecosystem service values in Guanzhong region, and further predict the impacts of land type changes and population changes on ecosystem services in the context of urbanization. Results showed that the expansion of construction land was the most intense, and the transfer process mainly crowded out arable land; the total ecosystem services value grew spatially in a “low center-high periphery” ring with large differences at the bottom, and forest land was the most important value provider. The total ecosystem services value was estimated to decline in the future, with low-value areas spreading northward and differences in the per capita ecosystem services value increasing. This study provides a reference for optimal simulation of urban expansion and ecological conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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16 pages, 3714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Thaw Depth on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loss in Runoff of Loess Slope

by Feichao Wang, Zhanbin Li, Yuting Cheng, Peng Li, Bin Wang and Hui Zhang

Sustainability 2022, 14(3), 1560; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031560 - 28 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2268

Abstract

Seasonal freeze-thaw erosion is a form of soil erosion caused by the topographical characteristics and climatic factors of the hilly and gully loess regions. Seasonal freeze-thaw can damage the soil pores and cause its bulk density to change. The effects of thawing depth [...] Read more.

Seasonal freeze-thaw erosion is a form of soil erosion caused by the topographical characteristics and climatic factors of the hilly and gully loess regions. Seasonal freeze-thaw can damage the soil pores and cause its bulk density to change. The effects of thawing depth on runoff and Nitrogen and Phosphorus loss on the rainfall erosion of an artificial slope filled with loess soil were analyzed after a rainfall test that simulated the spring thaw period in China. The results showed that: (1) The maximum runoff yield was 33.35 mm at 4 cm thawing depth, and the minimum was 12.95 mm at 6 cm thawing depth. With the increase in runoff time, the slope infiltration rate had a decreasing trend. The loss rate of available and total Phosphorus increased with the increase in runoff rate. The rate of increase was fastest when the thawing depth was 4 cm. (2) The relationships between runoff rate and Nitrogen loss and Phosphorus loss rate can be explained by linear regression equations, and the loss rate increased as the runoff rate rose for all thawing depths. Within the 0–6 cm thawing depths, the loss of total phosphorus was the largest when the thawing depth was 4 cm, and the loss of available phosphorus was the smallest when the thawing depth was 6 cm. At the shallower thawing depths, the available Nitrogen loss represented a smaller proportion of the total Nitrogen loss compared to nitrate Nitrogen loss. However, there was a gradual rise in the available Nitrogen proportion in the total amount of inorganic Nitrogen as the thawing depth increased. (3) Total Phosphorus was the available Phosphorus with a quadratic function relationship with runoff energy and runoff power. Runoff energy mainly affected the total Nitrogen and available Nitrogen loss in runoff, whereas runoff power mainly affected total Nitrogen loss in runoff. The results of this paper can improve the understanding of runoff and Nitrogen and Phosphorus loss caused by runoff during freeze-thaw conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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12 pages, 3170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Available Phosphorus Investigated for Spatial Distribution and Effect Indicators Resulting from Ecological Construction on the Loess Plateau, China

by Shengdong Cheng, Ganggang Ke, Zhanbin Li, Yuting Cheng and Heng Wu

Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12572; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212572 - 14 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2247

Abstract

Soil phosphorus is a major determinant and indicator of soil fertility and quality, and is also a source of nonpoint-source pollution. In order to control soil and water loss in the Loess Plateau, a series of soil and water conservation measures have been [...] Read more.

Soil phosphorus is a major determinant and indicator of soil fertility and quality, and is also a source of nonpoint-source pollution. In order to control soil and water loss in the Loess Plateau, a series of soil and water conservation measures have been taken, resulting in changes in land use and differences in spatial distribution. It is necessary to study soil available phosphorus (SAP) to evaluate land productivity and environmental quality. In this study, the spatial distribution of SAP in different land uses was investigated in a small catchment area of Loess Plateau, and the field-influencing factors were determined on five layers with soil depth of 20 cm. The results show the minimum and maximum SAP content occurred at 20–40 cm and 80–100 cm soil depth and reach a value of 27.26 mg/kg and 29.37 mg/kg at catchment scale, respectively. There is significant difference among the SAP of the five soil layers (p < 0.01). The SAP of different land uses is, in order: forestland < slope farmland < dam farmland < terrace < grassland. Different land uses’ topographies make a difference to the spatial distribution of SAP. Slope and soil texture are the domain factors influencing the SAP concentration at the catchment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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21 pages, 5729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Coupling and Influencing Factors between Urbanization and Ecosystem Services in Guanzhong, China

by Yiting Chen, Zhanbin Li, Peng Li, Zipei Zhang and Yixin Zhang

Sustainability 2021, 13(19), 10637; https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910637 - 25 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2609

Abstract

Urbanization trades off the value of ecosystem services for economic value, either directly or indirectly. Optimizing the synergistic effects of both and identifying the coupled influences associated with human activities are essential for sustainable regional development and policy formulation. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Urbanization trades off the value of ecosystem services for economic value, either directly or indirectly. Optimizing the synergistic effects of both and identifying the coupled influences associated with human activities are essential for sustainable regional development and policy formulation. In this study, we analyzed the spatial differentiation of regional ecosystem service values and urbanization using ArcGIS 10.2, STATA 15.1, the value coefficient method, the urbanization index model, and the coupled coordination model, assessed their coupled coordination status, and further explored the influencing factors, taking the Guanzhong region of China as an example. The results show that the substrate has an important influence on ecosystem service values, with woodlands being the most important value provider and the largest contribution of regulating service values, with a spatial “center-periphery” ring-band growth distribution. There is a clear hierarchy of urbanization, with the higher the administrative level, the higher the level of urbanization. The overall coupling and coordination of ecosystem services and urbanization is in a non-equilibrium state, with high levels in the south and low levels in the north. Further research on the factors influencing the coupling found that the disposable income of urban residents and the population employed in the tertiary industry had the greatest influence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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Review

Jump to: Research

33 pages, 15272 KiB

Open AccessReview

Forty Years of Soil and Water Conservation Policy, Implementation, Research and Development in Indonesia: A Review

by Hunggul Yudono Setio Hadi Nugroho, Tyas Mutiara Basuki, Irfan Budi Pramono, Endang Savitri, Purwanto, Dewi Retna Indrawati, Nining Wahyuningrum, Rahardyan Nugroho Adi, Yonky Indrajaya, Agung Budi Supangat, Pamungkas Buana Putra, Diah Auliyani, Eko Priyanto, Tri Wira Yuwati, Pratiwi, Budi Hadi Narendra, Asep Sukmana, Wuri Handayani, Ogi Setiawan and Ryke Nandini

Sustainability 2022, 14(5), 2972; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14052972 - 3 Mar 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7150

Abstract

Dominated by mountainous topography, high rainfall, and erosion-sensitive soil types, and with the majority of its population living in rural areas as farmers, most of Indonesia’s watersheds are highly vulnerable to erosion. In 1984, the Government of Indonesia established 22 priority watersheds to [...] Read more.

Dominated by mountainous topography, high rainfall, and erosion-sensitive soil types, and with the majority of its population living in rural areas as farmers, most of Indonesia’s watersheds are highly vulnerable to erosion. In 1984, the Government of Indonesia established 22 priority watersheds to be handled, which marked the start of formal soil and water conservation activities. Although it has not fully succeeded in improving watershed conditions from all aspects, something which is indicated by fluctuations in the area of degraded land, over the past 40 years the Indonesian government has systematically implemented various soil and water conservation techniques in various areas with the support of policies, laws and regulations, and research and development. These systematic efforts have shown positive results, with a 40% reduction in the area of degraded land over the last 15 years from 2004–2018. This paper reviews policy, implementation, and research and development of soil and water conservation activities in Indonesia over the last 40 years from the 1980s to 2020 and explores the dynamics of the activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Erosion and Water and Soil Conservation)

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