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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2021) | Viewed by 38131

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Prof. Dr. Olli Vapalahti

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Department of Virology, Medicum, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 21 (Haartmaninkatu 3), 00014 Helsinki, Finland
Interests: ecology and epidemiology of zoonotic viruses; virus discovery; virus-host interactions, pathogenesis, and diagnostics of emerging infections
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Dr. Tarja Sironen

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Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Interests: One Health; microbiology and microbial evolution; zoonoses; emerging infectious diseases
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Special Issue Information

New infectious diseases are foreseen as a major threat to global public health in this century. Most of these are caused by viruses that are able to cross the host species barriers as zoonoses or further establish human-to-human transmission. In shortlisting 10 most imminent threats, WHO includes “disease X” to acknowledge that the causative agent of a next major epidemic or pandemic may still be unknown. The zoonotic pathogens are emerging with increasing frequency due to globalization, socio-economic and environmental changes. In order to detect these pathogens and develop control measures, studies on the reservoirs and vectors, molecular biology, epidemiology, and diagnostics of these pathogens are needed.

This Special Issue seeks all types of manuscripts (e.g., reviews, research articles, and short communications) on viral zoonoses. The topics may include (but are not restricted to) virus discovery, virus-host interaction, pathogenesis, cross-species transmission, virus evolution, molecular epidemiology, and disease ecology. For SARS-CoV-2 research, manuscripts involving origin, reservoirs, cross-species transmission and zoonotic aspects are considered.

Prof. Dr. Olli Vapalahti
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tarja Sironen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

zoonosis
hantavirus
arenavirus
filovirus
flavivirus
emerging infections
cross-species transmission
virus evolution
reservoir
vector
molecular epidemiology

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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22 pages, 1299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Predator Exclusion and Habitat on Seroprevalence of New World Orthohantavirus Harbored by Two Sympatric Rodents within the Interior Atlantic Forest

by Briana Spruill-Harrell, Anna Pérez-Umphrey, Leonardo Valdivieso-Torres, Xueyuan Cao, Robert D. Owen and Colleen B. Jonsson

Viruses 2021, 13(10), 1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13101963 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2881

Abstract

Understanding how perturbations to trophic interactions influence virus–host dynamics is essential in the face of ongoing biodiversity loss and the continued emergence of RNA viruses and their associated zoonoses. Herein, we investigated the role of predator exclusion on rodent communities and the seroprevalence of hantaviruses within the Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayú (RNBM), which is a protected area of the Interior Atlantic Forest (IAF). In the IAF, two sympatric rodent reservoirs, Akodon montensis and Oligoryzomys nigripes, harbor Jaborá and Juquitiba hantavirus (JABV, JUQV), respectively. In this study, we employed two complementary methods for predator exclusion: comprehensive fencing and trapping/removal. The goal of exclusion was to preclude the influence of predation on small mammals on the sampling grids and thereby potentially reduce rodent mortality. Following baseline sampling on three grid pairs with different habitats, we closed the grids and began predator removal. By sampling three habitat types, we controlled for habitat-specific effects, which is important for hantavirus–reservoir dynamics in neotropical ecosystems. Our six-month predator exclusion experiment revealed that the exclusion of terrestrial mammalian predators had little influence on the rodent community or the population dynamics of A. montensis and O. nigripes. Instead, fluctuations in species diversity and species abundances were influenced by sampling session and forest degradation. These results suggest that seasonality and landscape composition play dominant roles in the prevalence of hantaviruses in rodent reservoirs in the IAF ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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16 pages, 2414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Hantaviruses Harbored by Murid Rodents in Northwestern Ukraine and Discovery of a Novel Puumala Virus Strain

by Evan P. Williams, Mariah K. Taylor, Iryna Demchyshyna, Igor Nebogatkin, Olena Nesterova, Iryna Khuda, Lyudmyla Chernenko, Oleksandra A. Hluzd, Vira V. Kutseva, Gregory E. Glass, Nataliia Yanko and Colleen B. Jonsson

Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1640; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081640 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3255

Abstract

In Europe, two species of hantaviruses, Puumala orthohantavirus (PUUV) and Dobrava orthohantavirus (DOBV), cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in humans. The rodent reservoirs for these viruses are common throughout Ukraine, and hence, the goal of this study was to identify the species and strains of hantaviruses circulating in this region. We conducted surveillance of small rodent populations in a rural region in northwestern Ukraine approximately 30 km from Poland. From the 424 small mammals captured, we identified nine species, of which the most abundant were Myodes glareolus, the bank vole (45%); Apodemus flavicollis, the yellow-necked mouse (29%); and Apodemus agrarius, the striped field mouse (14.6%) Using an indirect immunofluorescence assay, 15.7%, 20.5%, and 33.9% of the sera from M. glareolus, A. glareolus, and A. flavicollis were positive for hantaviral antibodies, respectively. Additionally, we detected antibodies to the hantaviral antigen in one Microtus arvalis, one Mus musculus, and one Sorex minutus. We screened the lung tissue for hantaviral RNA using next-generation sequencing and identified PUUV sequences in 25 small mammals, including 23 M. glareolus, 1 M. musculus, and 1 A. flavicollis, but we were unable to detect DOBV sequences in any of our A. agrarius specimens. The percent identity matrix and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses of the S-segment of PUUV from 14 M. glareolus lungs suggest the highest similarity (92–95% nucleotide or 99–100% amino acid) with the Latvian lineage. This new genetic information will contribute to future molecular surveillance of human cases in Ukraine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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13 pages, 3958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Viral RNA Metagenomics of Hyalomma Ticks Collected from Dromedary Camels in Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia

by Fathiah Zakham, Aishah E. Albalawi, Abdullah D. Alanazi, Phuoc Truong Nguyen, Abdulaziz S. Alouffi, Altaf Alaoui, Tarja Sironen, Teemu Smura and Olli Vapalahti

Viruses 2021, 13(7), 1396; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071396 - 18 Jul 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5213

Abstract

Arthropod-borne infections are a medical and economic threat to humans and livestock. Over the last three decades, several unprecedented viral outbreaks have been recorded in the Western part of the Arabian Peninsula. However, little is known about the circulation and diversity of arthropod-borne viruses in this region. To prepare for new outbreaks of vector-borne diseases, it is important to detect which viruses circulate in each vector population. In this study, we used a metagenomics approach to characterize the RNA virome of ticks infesting dromedary camels (Camelus dromedaries) in Makkah province, Saudi Arabia. Two hundred ticks of species Hyalomma dromedarii (n = 196) and Hyalomma impeltatum (n = 4) were collected from the Alkhurma district in Jeddah and Al-Taif city. Virome analysis showed the presence of several tick-specific viruses and tick-borne viruses associated with severe illness in humans. Some were identified for the first time in the Arabian Peninsula. The human disease-associated viruses detected included Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic fever virus and Tamdy virus (family Nairoviridae), Guertu virus (family Phenuiviridae), and a novel coltivirus that shares similarities with Tarumizu virus, Tai forest reovirus and Kundal virus (family Reoviridae). Furthermore, Alkhurma hemorrhagic virus (Flaviviridae) was detected in two tick pools by specific qPCR. In addition, tick-specific viruses in families Phenuiviridae (phleboviruses), Iflaviridae, Chuviridae, Totiviridae and Flaviviridae (Pestivirus) were detected. The presence of human pathogenetic viruses warrants further efforts in tick surveillance, xenosurveillence, vector control, and sero-epidemiological investigations in human and animal populations to predict, contain and mitigate future outbreaks in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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9 pages, 2567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetics of Neutralizing Antibodies of COVID-19 Patients Tested Using Clinical D614G, B.1.1.7, and B 1.351 Isolates in Microneutralization Assays

by Jenni Virtanen, Ruut Uusitalo, Essi M. Korhonen, Kirsi Aaltonen, Teemu Smura, Suvi Kuivanen, Sari H. Pakkanen, Sointu Mero, Anu Patjas, Marianna Riekkinen, Anu Kantele, Visa Nurmi, Klaus Hedman, Jussi Hepojoki, Tarja Sironen, Eili Huhtamo and Olli Vapalahti

Viruses 2021, 13(6), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13060996 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3314

Abstract

Increasing evidence suggests that some newly emerged SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VoCs) resist neutralization by antibodies elicited by the early-pandemic wild-type virus. We applied neutralization tests to paired recoveree sera (n = 38) using clinical isolates representing the first wave (D614G), VoC1, and VoC2 lineages (B.1.1.7 and B 1.351). Neutralizing antibodies inhibited contemporary and VoC1 lineages, whereas inhibition of VoC2 was reduced 8-fold, with 50% of sera failing to show neutralization. These results provide evidence for the increased potential of VoC2 to reinfect previously SARS-CoV-infected individuals. The kinetics of NAbs in different patients showed similar decline against all variants, with generally low initial anti-B.1.351 responses becoming undetectable, but with anti-B.1.1.7 NAbs remaining detectable (>20) for months after acute infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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12 pages, 737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Redondoviridae: High Prevalence and Possibly Chronic Shedding in Human Respiratory Tract, But No Zoonotic Transmission

by Nguyen Thi Kha Tu, Xutao Deng, Nguyen Thi Thu Hong, Nguyen Thi Han Ny, Tran My Phuc, Pham Thi Thanh Tam, Duong An Han, Luu Thi Thu Ha, Guy Thwaites, H. Rogier van Doorn, Anna-Maija K. Virtala, Eric Delwart, Stephen Baker, Olli Vapalahti, Le Van Tan and on behalf of the VIZIONS Consortium

Viruses 2021, 13(4), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13040533 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3522

Abstract

Redondoviridae is a recently discovered DNA virus family consisting of two species, vientovirus and brisavirus. Here we used PCR amplification and sequencing to characterize redondoviruses in nasal/throat swabs collected longitudinally from a cohort of 58 individuals working with animals in Vietnam. We additionally analyzed samples from animals to which redondovirus DNA-positive participants were exposed. Redondoviruses were detected in approximately 60% of study participants, including 33% (30/91) of samples collected during episodes of acute respiratory disease and in 50% (29/58) of baseline samples (with no respiratory symptoms). Vientovirus (73%; 24/33) was detected more frequently in samples than brisaviruses (27%; 9/33). In the 23 participants with at least 2 redondovirus-positive samples among their longitudinal samples, 10 (43.5%) had identical redondovirus replication-gene sequences detected (sampling duration: 35–132 days). We found no identical redondovirus replication genes in samples from different participants, and no redondoviruses were detected in 53 pooled nasal/throat swabs collected from domestic animals. Phylogenetic analysis described no large-scale geographical clustering between viruses from Vietnam, the US, Spain, and China, indicating that redondoviruses are highly genetically diverse and have a wide geographical distribution. Collectively, our study provides novel insights into the Redondoviridae family in humans, describing a high prevalence, potentially associated with chronic shedding in the respiratory tract with lack of evidence of zoonotic transmission from close animal contacts. The tropism and potential pathogenicity of this viral family remain to be determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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17 pages, 3964 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Challenge of Sheep and Cattle with Dugbe Orthonairovirus, a Neglected African Arbovirus Distantly Related to CCHFV

by Julia Hartlaub, Felicitas von Arnim, Christine Fast, Ali Mirazimi, Markus Keller and Martin H. Groschup

Viruses 2021, 13(3), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13030372 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3361

Abstract

Dugbe orthonairovirus (DUGV) is a tick-borne arbovirus within the order Bunyavirales. DUGV was first isolated in Nigeria, but virus isolations in ten further African countries indicate that DUGV is widespread throughout Africa. Humans can suffer from a mild febrile illness, hence, DUGV is classified as a biosafety level (BSL) 3 agent. In contrast, no disease has been described in animals, albeit serological evidence exists that ruminants are common hosts and may play an important role in the transmission cycle of this neglected arbovirus. In this study, young sheep and calves were experimentally inoculated with DUGV in order to determine their susceptibility and to study the course of infection. Moreover, potential antibody cross-reactivities in currently available diagnostic assays for Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus (CCHFV) were assessed as DUGV is distantly related to CCHFV. Following subcutaneous inoculation, none of the animals developed clinical signs or viremia. However, all ruminants seroconverted, as demonstrated by two DUGV neutralization test formats (micro-virus neutralization test (mVNT), plaque reduction (PRNT)), by indirect immunofluorescence assays and in bovines by a newly developed DUGV recombinant N protein ELISA. Sera did not react in commercial CCHFV ELISAs, whereas cross-reactivities were observed by immunofluorescence and immunoblot assays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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21 pages, 7782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Immune Responses in the Ileum of Gnotobiotic Pigs Infected with the Recombinant GII.p12_GII.3 Human Norovirus by mRNA Sequencing

by Byung-Joo Park, Hee-Seop Ahn, Sang-Hoon Han, Hyeon-Jeong Go, Dong-Hwi Kim, Changsun Choi, Soontag Jung, Jinjong Myoung, Joong-Bok Lee, Seung-Yong Park, Chang-Seon Song, Sang-Won Lee, Hoon-Taek Lee and In-Soo Choi

Viruses 2021, 13(1), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13010092 - 11 Jan 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2804

Abstract

Norovirus genogroup II (NoV GII) induces acute gastrointestinal food-borne illness in humans. Because gnotobiotic pigs can be infected with human norovirus (HuNoV) GII, they are frequently used to analyze the associated pathogenic mechanisms and immune responses, which remain poorly understood. Recently, mRNA sequencing analysis (RNA-Seq) has been used to identify cellular responses to viruses. In this study, we investigated the host immune response and possible mechanisms involved in virus evasion in the ileum of gnotobiotic pigs infected with HuNoV by RNA-Seq. HuNoV was detected in the feces, blood, and tissues of the jejunum, ileum, colon, mesenteric lymph node, and spleen of pigs infected with HuNoV. In analysis of mRNA sequencing, expression of anti-viral protein genes such as OAS1, MX1, and MX2 were largely decreased, whereas type I IFN was increased in pigs infected with HuNoV. In addition, expression of TNF and associated anti-inflammatory cytokine genes such as IL10 was increased in HuNoV-infected pigs. Expression of genes related to natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and CD8⁺ T cell exhaustion was increased, whereas that of MHC class I genes was decreased. Expression profiles of selected genes were further confirmed by qRT-PCR and Western blot. These results suggest that infection with HuNoV induces NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity but suppresses type I IFN- and CD8⁺ T cell-mediated antiviral responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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13 pages, 3426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achimota Pararubulavirus 3: A New Bat-Derived Paramyxovirus of the Genus Pararubulavirus

by Kate S. Baker, Mary Tachedjian, Jennifer Barr, Glenn A. Marsh, Shawn Todd, Gary Crameri, Sandra Crameri, Ina Smith, Clare E.G. Holmes, Richard Suu-Ire, Andres Fernandez-Loras, Andrew A. Cunningham, James L.N. Wood and Lin-Fa Wang

Viruses 2020, 12(11), 1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/v12111236 - 30 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4262

Abstract

Bats are an important source of viral zoonoses, including paramyxoviruses. The paramyxoviral Pararubulavirus genus contains viruses mostly derived from bats that are common, diverse, distributed throughout the Old World, and known to be zoonotic. Here, we describe a new member of the genus Achimota pararubulavirus 3 (AchPV3) and its isolation from the urine of African straw-coloured fruit bats on primary bat kidneys cells. We sequenced and analysed the genome of AchPV3 relative to other Paramyxoviridae, revealing it to be similar to known pararubulaviruses. Phylogenetic analysis of AchPV3 revealed the failure of molecular detection in the urine sample from which AchPV3 was derived and an attachment protein most closely related with AchPV2—a pararubulavirus known to cause cross-species transmission. Together these findings add to the picture of pararubulaviruses, their sources, and variable zoonotic potential, which is key to our understanding of host restriction and spillover of bat-derived paramyxoviruses. AchPV3 represents a novel candidate zoonosis and an important tool for further study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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10 pages, 7861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Rate of Circulating MERS-CoV in Dromedary Camels at Slaughterhouses in Riyadh, 2019

by Taibah A. Aljasim, Abdulrahman Almasoud, Haya A. Aljami, Mohamed W. Alenazi, Suliman A. Alsagaby, Asma N. Alsaleh and Naif Khalaf Alharbi

Viruses 2020, 12(11), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/v12111215 - 27 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3501

Abstract

MERS-CoV is a zoonotic virus that has emerged in humans in 2012 and caused severe respiratory illness with a mortality rate of 34.4%. Since its appearance, MERS-CoV has been reported in 27 countries and most of these cases were in Saudi Arabia. So far, dromedaries are considered to be the intermediate host and the only known source of human infection. This study was designed to determine the seroprevalence and the infection rate of MERS-CoV in slaughtered food-camels in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. A total of 171 nasal swabs along with 161 serum samples were collected during the winter; from January to April 2019. Nasal swabs were examined by Rapid test and RT-PCR to detect MERS-CoV RNA, while serum samples were tested primarily using S1-based ELISA Kit to detect MERS-CoV (IgG) antibodies and subsequently by MERS pseudotyped viral particles (MERSpp) neutralization assay for confirmation. Genetic diversity of the positive isolates was determined based on the amplification and sequencing of the spike gene. Our results showed high prevalence (38.6%) of MERS-CoV infection in slaughtered camels and high seropositivity (70.8%) during the time of the study. These data indicate previous and ongoing MERS-CoV infection in camels. Phylogenic analysis revealed relatively low genetic variability among our isolated samples. When these isolates were aligned against published spike sequences of MERS-CoV, deposited in global databases, there was sequence similarity of 94%. High seroprevalence and high genetic stability of MERS-CoV in camels indicating that camels pose a public health threat. The widespread MERS-CoV infections in camels might lead to a risk of future zoonotic transmission into people with direct contact with these infected camels. This study confirms re-infections in camels, highlighting a challenge for vaccine development when it comes to protective immunity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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Review

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23 pages, 871 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bat-Borne Coronaviruses in Jordan and Saudi Arabia: A Threat to Public Health?

by Laith N. AL-Eitan, Amneh H. Tarkhan, Mansour A. Alghamdi, Denise A. Marston, Guanghui Wu, Lorraine M. McElhinney, Ian H. Brown and Anthony R. Fooks

Viruses 2020, 12(12), 1413; https://doi.org/10.3390/v12121413 - 9 Dec 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4481

Abstract

Emerging infectious diseases are of great concern to public health, as highlighted by the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Such diseases are of particular danger during mass gathering and mass influx events, as large crowds of people in close proximity to each other creates optimal opportunities for disease transmission. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are two countries that have witnessed mass gatherings due to the arrival of Syrian refugees and the annual Hajj season. The mass migration of people not only brings exotic diseases to these regions but also brings new diseases back to their own countries, e.g., the outbreak of MERS in South Korea. Many emerging pathogens originate in bats, and more than 30 bat species have been identified in these two countries. Some of those bat species are known to carry viruses that cause deadly diseases in other parts of the world, such as the rabies virus and coronaviruses. However, little is known about bats and the pathogens they carry in Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Here, the importance of enhanced surveillance of bat-borne infections in Jordan and Saudi Arabia is emphasized, promoting the awareness of bat-borne diseases among the general public and building up infrastructure and capability to fill the gaps in public health preparedness to prevent future pandemics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Zoonoses and Global Public Health)

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