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Energy and Water Nexus
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Energy and Water Nexus

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Scarcity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 December 2018) | Viewed by 31344

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Winnie Gerbens-Leenes

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Integrated Research on Energy, Environment and Society (IREES, Groningen, The Netherlands), University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
Interests: water footprint; energy; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The energy and water nexus is an important topic. Energy requires more and more freshwater and freshwater needs more and more energy. Energy demand is increasing and supply is shifting towards larger use of renewable energy sources, e.g. bioenergy, wind and solar energy, or hydropower. Rising demand, e.g. larger electricity demand, or the use of some types of renewable energy sources might require more freshwater, for example for the cooling of power plants or the irrigation of energy crops. Hydropower can also have a relatively large water footprint per unit of electricity when hydropower stations are located in areas with large water evaporation. Freshwater demand is also rising. When freshwater becomes scarcer, more energy is needed for its supply, for example, for desalination or for the pumping of groundwater from deep aquifers. In general, energy is becoming more water demanding and freshwater is becoming more energy demanding. If the future energy supply includes more energy sources with larger water requirements than today, sustainable water management is essential.

This Special Issue is open to papers advancing the knowledge on water and energy relationships or showing innovative applications. We welcome, for example, papers that analyze ways to improve efficient water use, or to decrease water pollution. Papers on the comparison of the water footprints of different types of energy would also be most welcome. We also encourage papers on global energy scenarios and water, including the role of new sources of energy, such as second-generation biofuels from residues, or on trade-offs between water, land and carbon footprints related to energy production.

Dr. P.W. Gerbens-Leenes
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • water–energy nexus
  • water resource management
  • water footprint assessment
  • sustainable bioenergy production
  • water, land and carbon footprint trade-offs

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 1209 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Water-Energy Coupling Efficiency in China: Based on the Three-Stage SBM-DEA Model with Undesirable Outputs
by Meng Wang, Caizhi Sun and Xueli Wang
Water 2019, 11(4), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040632 - 27 Mar 2019
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3490
Abstract
Although the relationships between water and energy systems have been widely researched globally, such studies have not properly considered the coupling and driving mechanisms of the nexus between water and energy. Based on panel data from 30 Chinese provinces and cities, we used [...] Read more.
Although the relationships between water and energy systems have been widely researched globally, such studies have not properly considered the coupling and driving mechanisms of the nexus between water and energy. Based on panel data from 30 Chinese provinces and cities, we used a three-stage Slacks-Based Measure model for Data Envelopment Analysis (SBM-DEA) to estimate the Water-Energy coupling efficiency in China from 2003–2015. Using the Stochastic Frontier Approach (SFA) regression model, we constructed an index of environmental factors that affect the Water-Energy coupling efficiency from the four aspects of resource environment, social environment, economic environment, and ecological environment. The results indicate that the Water-Energy coupling efficiency scores in most provinces in China are high and stable, and that the coupling efficiency of water and energy in China has a distribution pattern of northeast > east > west > central. Compared to the results in the first stage of analysis, the efficiency values in the third stage (after removal of environmental and stochastic factors) were smaller, illustrating that the coupling efficiency of water and energy in China depends on a favorable external environment. In the sample period, we also found that the improvement of the resource and social environments was the most conducive way to improve the Water-Energy coupling efficiency. Overall, the management level of technological innovation in China still has some room for improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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18 pages, 4764 KiB  
Article
The River’s Light: Water Needs for Thermoelectric Power Generation in the Ebro River Basin, 1969–2015
by Diego Sesma-Martín
Water 2019, 11(3), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030441 - 28 Feb 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7639
Abstract
Water is essential for almost all energy processes. This paper analyses the evolution of the cooling water needs of thermal power plants in the Ebro River basin, the largest contributor to the Spanish electricity grid, over the period 1969–2015. It makes several contributions. [...] Read more.
Water is essential for almost all energy processes. This paper analyses the evolution of the cooling water needs of thermal power plants in the Ebro River basin, the largest contributor to the Spanish electricity grid, over the period 1969–2015. It makes several contributions. First, the cooling water needs for the plants are estimated. Second, these water requirements are compared to other water-using activities in the region. Third, a long-term water-use efficiency analysis is carried out. Finally, water-saving measures are proposed to counter possible future water scarcities. The results show that thermoelectric water consumption per capita is around 7 m3/year. Estimated future thermal power generation water withdrawals (around 500 m3 per capita/year) might compromise flows for other water uses in periods of drought. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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11 pages, 660 KiB  
Article
The Water Footprint of Wood for Energy Consumed in the European Union
by Joep F. Schyns and Davy Vanham
Water 2019, 11(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020206 - 25 Jan 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8242
Abstract
The European Union (EU) aims at increasing the share of renewable energy use, of which nearly half originates from wood sources currently. An energy supply from wood sources strongly relies on green water resources, which are limited and also essential for food security [...] Read more.
The European Union (EU) aims at increasing the share of renewable energy use, of which nearly half originates from wood sources currently. An energy supply from wood sources strongly relies on green water resources, which are limited and also essential for food security and terrestrial biodiversity. We have estimated the water footprint (WF) of wood for energy consumed in the EU-28 (WFwec) by combining data on energy produced from wood sources in the EU per member state for the year 2015 from the EU energy reference scenario 2016, extra-EU trade in fuelwood and charcoal, and country-specific estimates of the water footprint per unit of wood. We find that the WFwec is large (156 × 109 m3/y), 94% of this footprint is situated within the EU, and it is almost exclusively related to green water (99%). Adding WFwec to the WF related to the EU’s consumption of agricultural and industrial products as well as domestic water use (702 × 109 m3/y) signifies an increase of 22% to 858 × 109 m3/y. We show that over half of the internal WFwec is in member states that have a high degree of green water scarcity and hence very limited potential left to sustainably allocate more green water flows to biomass production. The results of this study feed into the debate on how the EU can achieve a sustainable and reliable energy supply. Policies on energy security should consider that increased use of wood or other biomass for energy increases the already significant pressure on limited green water resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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19 pages, 7034 KiB  
Article
Inter-Sectoral Linkage and External Trade Analysis for Virtual Water and Embodied Carbon Emissions in China
by Huiping Huang, Xinsheng Li, Lianhai Cao, Dongdong Jia, Junlong Zhang, Chunying Wang and Yuping Han
Water 2018, 10(11), 1664; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111664 - 15 Nov 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3520
Abstract
In the globalized world, water utilization and carbon emissions are two important indicators for water and energy resources evaluation. This paper investigates the inter-sectoral linkage and external trade of virtual water (water embodied in products) and embodied carbon emissions in China based on [...] Read more.
In the globalized world, water utilization and carbon emissions are two important indicators for water and energy resources evaluation. This paper investigates the inter-sectoral linkage and external trade of virtual water (water embodied in products) and embodied carbon emissions in China based on input–output tables during 1997–2015. Results indicate that: inside China, agriculture, the electric and water industry are major virtual water suppliers, while heavy industrial sectors including the metal products industry, the petrochemical industry, other nonmetallic mineral products industry, and the mining industry are major embodied carbon emissions suppliers. China is the net exporter of virtual water (137.15 × 109 m3) and embodied carbon emissions (16.05 × 108 t). From the perspective of industrial chain, about 81% of virtual water export come from agriculture, the electric and water industry ultimately, and about 85% of embodied carbon emissions export come from the mining industry, the petrochemical industry, other nonmetallic mineral products industry, the metal products industry, and the electric and water industry ultimately. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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21 pages, 1557 KiB  
Article
Impact of China’s Urbanization on Water Use and Energy Consumption: An Econometric Method and Spatiotemporal Analysis
by Yan Wang, Weihua Xiao, Yicheng Wang, Yong Zhao, Jianhua Wang, Baodeng Hou, Xinyi Song and Xuelei Zhang
Water 2018, 10(10), 1323; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101323 - 25 Sep 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2845
Abstract
As important subsystems of the urban environment, water resources and energy are necessary for normal urban functions and play an important supporting role in urbanization. The rapid development of China’s economy is increasingly dependent on these two subsystems. Analyses of the relationship between [...] Read more.
As important subsystems of the urban environment, water resources and energy are necessary for normal urban functions and play an important supporting role in urbanization. The rapid development of China’s economy is increasingly dependent on these two subsystems. Analyses of the relationship between urbanization and water use or energy consumption have become the focus of attention, but researchers have mainly evaluated the impact on the two subsystems separately without providing an integrated analysis, nor have they revealed the link between water use and energy consumption. We addressed this information gap by using an econometric method to empirically investigate the long-term equilibrium relationships and Granger causal relationships among urbanization, water use, and energy consumption in China, and by conducting a spatiotemporal analysis to identify the trends of water use intensity and energy consumption intensity under the effects of urbanization during 2005–2015. We found long-term equilibrium relationships among urbanization, water use, and energy consumption. Granger causality results reveal the presence of a unidirectional Granger causal relationship running from urbanization to energy consumption and to water use, and bidirectional causality between energy consumption and water use. Moreover, water use intensity and energy consumption intensity decreased significantly under urbanization during the study period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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22 pages, 12988 KiB  
Article
The Flow Generator Relations for Water Renewal through the Flushing Culverts in Marinas
by Ivana Bartolić, Goran Lončar, Damjan Bujak and Dalibor Carević
Water 2018, 10(7), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070936 - 13 Jul 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4195
Abstract
An understanding of the relationship between the flow generators and harbor design could result in an acceptable seawater renewal into an enclosed basin. The flushing culverts located in the breakwater are the most cost-effective technique for improving water renewal in port engineering. The [...] Read more.
An understanding of the relationship between the flow generators and harbor design could result in an acceptable seawater renewal into an enclosed basin. The flushing culverts located in the breakwater are the most cost-effective technique for improving water renewal in port engineering. The aim of the paper was to identify and quantify the relation between flow generators and culvert flow to propose an optimal position for the flushing culverts. Mentioned relations are important for designing and positioning the flushing culverts in marinas to achieve optimal sea exchange in the marina basin. Field measurements in the marina Opatija were performed and the data served for calibrating a 3D circulation model and a wave generation/propagation model. The absolute volume of the flow through the culverts caused by wind waves has the more important contribution to the water renewal in the marina basin than the coastal springs have. The optimal flow rates through the culverts are performed by positioning the flushing culvert axis at the mean sea level in accordance with the main incident direction of the propagating waves. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Water Nexus)
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