Polymers

19 pages, 2734 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Main Characteristics of Processed Grain Starch Products and Physicochemical Features of the Starches from Maize (Zea mays L.) with Different Genotypes

by Eduard B. Khatefov, Vladimir G. Goldstein, Alexey V. Krivandin and Lyubov A. Wasserman

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081976 - 21 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2943

Abstract

To understand the relationship between the genotype of maize plants and differences in their origin and the ploidy of the genome, which carry gene alleles programming the biosynthesis of various starch modifications, the thermodynamic and morphological features of starches from the grains of [...] Read more.

To understand the relationship between the genotype of maize plants and differences in their origin and the ploidy of the genome, which carry gene alleles programming the biosynthesis of various starch modifications, the thermodynamic and morphological features of starches from the grains of these plants have been studied. This study investigated the peculiarities of starch extracted from subspecies of maize (the dry matter mass (DM) fraction, starch content in grain DM, ash content in grain DM, and amylose content in starch) belonging to different genotypes within the framework of the program for the investigation of polymorphism of the world collection of plant genetic resources VIR. Among the starch genotypes of maize studied, four groups comprised the waxy (wx), conditionally high amylose (“ae”), sugar (su), and wild (WT) genotypes. Starches with an amylose content of over 30% conditionally belonged to the “ae” genotype. The starches of the su genotype had fewer starch granules than other investigated genotypes. An increase in amylose content in the investigated starches, accompanied by a decrease in their thermodynamic melting parameters, induced the accumulation of defective structures in the starches under study. The thermodynamic parameters evaluated for dissociation of the amylose–lipid complex were temperature (T_aml) and enthalpy (H_aml); for the su genotype, temperature and enthalpy values of dissociation of the amylose–lipid complex were higher than in the starches from the “ae” and WT genotypes. This study has shown that the amylose content in starch and the individual features of the maize genotype determine the thermodynamic melting parameters of the starches under study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Polymers)

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22 pages, 2820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Hybrid Filler, Carbon Black–Lignocellulose, on Fire Hazard Reduction, including PAHs and PCDDs/Fs of Natural Rubber Composites

by Przemysław Rybiński, Ulugbek Zakirovich Mirkhodjaev, Witold Żukowski, Dariusz Bradło, Adam Gawlik, Jakub Zamachowski, Monika Żelezik, Marcin Masłowski and Justyna Miedzianowska

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1975; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081975 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1543

Abstract

The smoke emitted during thermal decomposition of elastomeric composites contains a significant number of carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds from the group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, as well as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans, PCDDs/Fs. By replacing carbon black with a specific amount of [...] Read more.

The smoke emitted during thermal decomposition of elastomeric composites contains a significant number of carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds from the group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, as well as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans, PCDDs/Fs. By replacing carbon black with a specific amount of lignocellulose filler, we noticeably reduced the fire hazard caused by elastomeric composites. The lignocellulose filler reduced the parameters associated with the flammability of the tested composites, decreased the smoke emission, and limited the toxicity of gaseous decomposition products expressed as a toximetric indicator and the sum of PAHs and PCDDs/Fs. The natural filler also reduced emission of gases that constitute the basis for determination of the value of the toximetric indicator W_LC50SM. The flammability and optical density of the smoke were determined in accordance with the applicable European standards, with the use of a cone calorimeter and a chamber for smoke optical density tests. PCDD/F and PAH were determined using the GCMS-MS technique. The toximetric indicator was determined using the FB-FTIR method (fluidised bed reactor and the infrared spectrum analysis). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Processing, Structure and Properties of Polymer Materials: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 1934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Lyophilization and Cryoprotection on the Stability and Morphology of Drug-Loaded Poly(ethylene glycol-b-ε-caprolactone) Micelles

by Md. Saddam Hussain, Khandokar Sadique Faisal, Andrew J. Clulow, Hugo Albrecht, Marta Krasowska and Anton Blencowe

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1974; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081974 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2293

Abstract

Polymeric micelles are promising carriers for the delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs, providing enhanced drug solubility, blood circulation times, and bioavailability. Nevertheless, the storage and long-term stability of micelles in solution present challenges requiring the lyophilization and storage of formulations in the solid [...] Read more.

Polymeric micelles are promising carriers for the delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs, providing enhanced drug solubility, blood circulation times, and bioavailability. Nevertheless, the storage and long-term stability of micelles in solution present challenges requiring the lyophilization and storage of formulations in the solid state, with reconstitution immediately prior to application. Therefore, it is important to understand the effects of lyophilization/reconstitution on micelles, particularly their drug-loaded counterparts. Herein, we investigated the use of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) as a cryoprotectant for the lyophilization/reconstitution of a library of poly(ethylene glycol-b-ε-caprolactone) (PEG-b-PCL) copolymer micelles and their drug-loaded counterparts, as well as the effect of the physiochemical properties of different drugs (phloretin and gossypol). The critical aggregation concentration (CAC) of the copolymers decreased with increasing weight fraction of the PCL block (f_PCL), plateauing at ~1 mg/L when the f_PCL was >0.45. The blank (empty) and drug-loaded micelles were lyophilized/reconstituted in the absence and presence of β-CD (9% w/w) and analyzed via dynamic light scattering (DLS) and synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to assess for changes in aggregate size (hydrodynamic diameter, D_h) and morphology, respectively. Regardless of the PEG-b-PCL copolymer or the use of β-CD, the blank micelles displayed poor redispersibility (<10% relative to the initial concentration), while the fraction that redispersed displayed similar D_h to the as-prepared micelles, increasing in D_h as the f_PCL of the PEG-b-PCL copolymer increased. While most blank micelles displayed discrete morphologies, the addition of β-CD or lyophilization/reconstitution generally resulted in the formation of poorly defined aggregates. Similar results were also obtained for drug-loaded micelles, with the exception of several that retained their primary morphology following lyophilization/reconstitution, although no obvious trends were noted between the microstructure of the copolymers or the physicochemical properties of the drugs and their successful redispersion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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17 pages, 8261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geant4 Simulation of the Effect of Different Composites on Polyimide Photon and Neutron Shielding Properties

by Hanan Akhdar and Rawan Alotaibi

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1973; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081973 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1876

Abstract

Polymers are widely used materials that have many medical and industrial applications. Some polymers have even been introduced as radiation-shielding materials; therefore, many studies are focusing on new polymers and their interactions with photons and neutrons. Research has recently focused on the theoretical [...] Read more.

Polymers are widely used materials that have many medical and industrial applications. Some polymers have even been introduced as radiation-shielding materials; therefore, many studies are focusing on new polymers and their interactions with photons and neutrons. Research has recently focused on the theoretical estimation of the shielding effectiveness of Polyimide doped with different composites. It is well known that theoretical studies on the shielding properties of different materials through modeling and simulation have many benefits, as they help scientists to choose the right shielding material for a specific application, and they are also much more cost-effective and take much less time compared to experimental studies. In this study, Polyimide (C₃₅H₂₈N₂O₇) was investigated. It is a high-performance polymer, well known for its outstanding chemical and thermal stability, as well as for its high mechanical resistance. Because of its exceptional properties, it is used in high-end applications. The performance of Polyimide and Polyimide doped with different weight fractions of composites (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 wt.%) as a shielding material against photons and neutrons were investigated using a Monte Carlo-based simulation toolkit Geant4 within a wide range of energies of both photons and neutrons from 10 to 2000 KeVs. Polyimide can be considered a good neutron shielding material, and its photon shielding abilities could be further enhanced when adding different high atomic number composites to it. The results showed that Au and Ag gave the best results in terms of the photon shielding properties, while ZnO and TiO₂ had the least negative effect on the neutron shielding properties. The results also indicate that Geant4 is a very reliable tool when it comes to evaluating the shielding properties against photons and neutrons of any material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Functional Polymer Composites)

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21 pages, 5485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Waste from Argan Seeds for Polyhydroxybutyrate Production Using Bacterial Strains Isolated from Argan Soils

by Amina Aragosa, Valeria Specchia and Mariaenrica Frigione

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1972; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081972 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1840

Abstract

The aim of this work was to study the valorization of argan seed pulp, a waste material obtained from argan oil extraction, for the biosynthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). A new species that showed the metabolic capacity for the conversion of argan waste into [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to study the valorization of argan seed pulp, a waste material obtained from argan oil extraction, for the biosynthesis of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). A new species that showed the metabolic capacity for the conversion of argan waste into the bio-based polymer was isolated from an argan crop located in Teroudant, a southwestern region of Morocco, where the arid soil is exploited for goat grazing. The PHB accumulation efficiency of this new species was compared to the previously identified species 1B belonging to the genus Sphingomonas, and results were reported as dry cell weight residual biomass and PHB final yield measured. Temperature, incubation time, pH, NaCl concentration, nitrogen sources, residue concentrations, and culture medium volumes were analyzed with the aim of obtaining a maximum accumulation of PHB. UV-visible spectrophotometry and FTIR analysis confirmed that PHB was present in the material extracted from the bacterial culture. The results of this wide investigation indicated that the new isolated species 2D1 had a higher efficiency in PHB production compared to the previously identified strain 1B, which was isolated from a contaminated argan soil in Teroudant. PHB final yield of the two bacterial species, i.e., the new isolated and 1B, cultivated under optimal culture conditions, in 500 mL MSM enriched with 3% argan waste, were 21.40% (5.91 ± 0.16 g/L) and 8.16% (1.92 ± 0.23 g/L), respectively. For the new isolated strain, the result of the UV-visible spectrum indicates the absorbance at 248 nm, while the FTIR spectrum showed peaks at 1726 cm⁻¹ and 1270 cm⁻¹: these characteristic peaks indicated the presence of PHB in the extract. The data from the species 1B UV-visible and FTIR spectra were previously reported and were used in this study for a correlation analysis. Furthermore, additional peaks, uncharacteristic of standard PHB, suggest the presence of impurities (e.g., cell debris, solvent residues, biomass residues) that persisted after extraction. Therefore, a further enhancement of the sample purification during extraction is recommended for more accuracy in the chemical characterization. If 470,000 tons of argan fruit waste can be produced annually, and 3% of waste is consumed in 500 mL culture by 2D1 to produce 5.91 g/L (21.40%) of the bio-based polymer PHB, it can be estimated that the amount of putative PHB that can be extracted annually from the total argan fruit waste is about 2300 tons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers: Synthesis and Applications)

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15 pages, 4417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Substantial Copper (Cu²⁺) Uptake by Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer and Its Resistance to Acid Leaching and Ion Exchange

by Nenad Grba, Cyrill Grengg, Mirjana Petronijević, Martin Dietzel and Andre Baldermann

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1971; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081971 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2712

Abstract

Geopolymers are inorganic, chemically resistant aluminosilicate-based binding agents, which remove hazardous metal ions from exposed aqueous media. However, the removal efficiency of a given metal ion and the potential ion remobilization have to be assessed for individual geopolymers. Therefore, copper ions (Cu²⁺ [...] Read more.

Geopolymers are inorganic, chemically resistant aluminosilicate-based binding agents, which remove hazardous metal ions from exposed aqueous media. However, the removal efficiency of a given metal ion and the potential ion remobilization have to be assessed for individual geopolymers. Therefore, copper ions (Cu²⁺) were removed by a granulated, metakaolin-based geopolymer (GP) in water matrices. Subsequent ion exchange and leaching tests were used to determine the mineralogical and chemical properties as well as the resistance of the Cu²⁺-bearing GPs to corrosive aquatic environments. Experimental results indicate the pH of the reacted solutions to have a significant impact on the Cu²⁺ uptake systematics: the removal efficiency ranged from 34–91% at pH 4.1–5.7 up to ~100% at pH 11.1–12.4. This is equivalent to Cu²⁺ uptake capacities of up to 193 mg/g and 560 mg/g in acidic versus alkaline media. The uptake mechanism was governed by Cu²⁺-substitution for alkalis in exchangeable GP sites and by co-precipitation of gerhardtite (Cu₂(NO₃)(OH)₃) or tenorite (CuO) and spertiniite (Cu(OH)₂). All Cu-GPs showed excellent resistance to ion exchange (Cu²⁺ release: 0–2.4%) and acid leaching (Cu²⁺ release: 0.2–0.7%), suggesting that tailored GPs have a high potential to immobilize Cu²⁺ ions from aquatic media. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Polymer Materials in Water Treatment)

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20 pages, 3994 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Statistical Copolymers of N–Vinylpyrrolidone and 2–Chloroethyl Vinyl Ether via Radical RAFT Polymerization: Monomer Reactivity Ratios, Thermal Properties, and Kinetics of Thermal Decomposition of the Statistical Copolymers

by Nikolaos V. Plachouras and Marinos Pitsikalis

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1970; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081970 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3463

Abstract

The radical statistical copolymerization of N–vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP) and 2–chloroethyl vinyl ether (CEVE) was conducted using the Reversible Addition–Fragmentation chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerization technique, employing [(O–ethylxanthyl)methyl]benzene (CTA-1) and O–ethyl S–(phthalimidylmethyl) xanthate (CTA-2) as the Chain Transfer Agents (CTAs), leading to P(NVP–stat–CEVE) products. [...] Read more.

The radical statistical copolymerization of N–vinyl pyrrolidone (NVP) and 2–chloroethyl vinyl ether (CEVE) was conducted using the Reversible Addition–Fragmentation chain Transfer (RAFT) polymerization technique, employing [(O–ethylxanthyl)methyl]benzene (CTA-1) and O–ethyl S–(phthalimidylmethyl) xanthate (CTA-2) as the Chain Transfer Agents (CTAs), leading to P(NVP–stat–CEVE) products. After optimizing copolymerization conditions, monomer reactivity ratios were estimated using various linear graphical methods, as well as the COPOINT program, which was applied in the framework of the terminal model. Structural parameters of the copolymers were obtained by calculating the dyad sequence fractions and the monomers’ mean sequence lengths. Thermal properties of the copolymers were studied by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and kinetics of their thermal degradation by Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Thermogravimetry (DTG), applying the isoconversional methodologies of Ozawa–Flynn–Wall (OFW) and Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Polymer Science and Technology in Greece: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 5910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer Screening for Efficient Water Cut Reduction in a Sandstone Oilfield in Kazakhstan

by Daniyar Yerniyazov, Madi Yesmukhambet, Razida Kenes, Azamat Bukayev, Mariam Shakeel, Peyman Pourafshary and Darya Musharova

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081969 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2143

Abstract

Polymer flooding is one of the most widely used and effective enhanced oil recovery techniques. It can improve the macroscopic sweep efficiency of a reservoir by controlling the fractional flow of water. The applicability of polymer flooding for one of the sandstone fields [...] Read more.

Polymer flooding is one of the most widely used and effective enhanced oil recovery techniques. It can improve the macroscopic sweep efficiency of a reservoir by controlling the fractional flow of water. The applicability of polymer flooding for one of the sandstone fields in Kazakhstan was evaluated in this study and polymer screening was carried out to choose the most appropriate polymer among four hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymer samples. Polymer samples were prepared in Caspian seawater (CSW) and assessed based on rheology, thermal stability, sensitivity to non-ionic materials and oxygen, and static adsorption. All the tests were performed at a reservoir temperature of 63 °C. Based on the results of the screening study, tolerance of a polymer towards high-temperature reservoir conditions, resistance to bacterial activity and dissolved oxygen present in make-up brine, chemical degradation, and reduced adsorption on rock surface were considered the most important screening parameters. As a result of this screening study, one out of four polymers was selected for the target field as it showed a negligible effect of bacterial activity on thermal stability. The results of static adsorption also showed 13–14% lower adsorption of the selected polymer compared to other polymers tested in the study. The results of this study demonstrate important screening criteria to be followed during polymer selection for an oilfield as the polymer should be selected based on not only polymer characteristics but also the polymer interactions with the ionic and non-ionic components of the make-up brine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Oilfield Production Chemistry)

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16 pages, 7416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer Supercritical CO₂ Foaming under Peculiar Conditions: Laser and Ultrasound Implementation

by Jennifer Andrea Villamil Jiménez, Margaux Haurat, Rayan Berriche, Fabien Baillon, Martial Sauceau, Mattéo Chaussat, Jean-Marc Tallon, Andrzej Kusiak and Michel Dumon

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1968; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081968 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

The two-step batch foaming process of solid-state assisted by supercritical CO₂ is a versatile technique for the foaming of polymers. In this work, it was assisted by an out-of-autoclave technology: either using lasers or ultrasound (US). Laser-aided foaming was only tested in [...] Read more.

The two-step batch foaming process of solid-state assisted by supercritical CO₂ is a versatile technique for the foaming of polymers. In this work, it was assisted by an out-of-autoclave technology: either using lasers or ultrasound (US). Laser-aided foaming was only tested in the preliminary experiments; most of the work involved US. Foaming was carried out on bulk thick samples (PMMA). The effect of ultrasound on the cellular morphology was a function of the foaming temperature. Thanks to US, cell size was slightly decreased, cell density was increased, and interestingly, thermal conductivity was shown to decrease. The effect on the porosity was more remarkable at high temperatures. Both techniques provided micro porosity. This first investigation of these two potential methods for the assistance of supercritical CO₂ batch foaming opens the door to new investigations. The different properties of the ultrasound method and its effects will be studied in an upcoming publication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Porous Polymeric Materials: Design and Applications)

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20 pages, 7119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Combined Experimental and Computational (DFT, RDF, MC and MD) Investigation of Epoxy Resin as a Potential Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in a 0.5 M H₂SO₄ Environment

by Rachid Hsissou, Khadija Dahmani, Anouar El Magri, Abdelfettah Hmada, Zaki Safi, Nadia Dkhireche, Mouhsine Galai, Nuha Wazzan and Avni Berisha

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1967; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081967 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 2645

Abstract

In this work, a tetrafunctional epoxy resin entitled 2,3,4,5-tetraglycidyloxy pentanal (TGP) was tested and investigated as a potential corrosion inhibitor for mild steel (MS) in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution. The corrosion inhibition process for mild steel was employed alongside various [...] Read more.

In this work, a tetrafunctional epoxy resin entitled 2,3,4,5-tetraglycidyloxy pentanal (TGP) was tested and investigated as a potential corrosion inhibitor for mild steel (MS) in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution. The corrosion inhibition process for mild steel was employed alongside various techniques, such as potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), temperature effect (TE), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and theoretical approaches (DFT, MC, RDF and MD). Further, the corrosion efficacies obtained at the optimum concentration (10⁻³ M of the TGP) were 85.5% (EIS) and 88.6% (PDP), respectively. The PDP results indicated that the TGP tetrafunctional epoxy resin acted the same as an anodic inhibitor type in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution. SEM and EDS analyses found that the protective layer formed on the MS electrode surface in the presence of TGP could prevent the attack of the sulfur ions. The DFT calculation provided more information regarding the reactivity, geometric properties and the active centers of the corrosion inhibitory efficiency of the tested epoxy resin. RDF, MC and MD simulations showed that the investigated inhibitory resin have a maximum inhibition efficiency in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Resin-Based Polymers and Composite Materials)

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16 pages, 9203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of UV-C Radiation on 3D Printed ABS-PC Polymers

by Catalin Gheorghe Amza, Aurelian Zapciu, Florin Baciu and Constantin Radu

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1966; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081966 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3530

Abstract

During the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare facilities experienced severe shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE) and other medical supplies. Employing 3D printing to rapidly fabricate functional parts and equipment was one of the emergency solutions used to tackle these shortages. [...] Read more.

During the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare facilities experienced severe shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE) and other medical supplies. Employing 3D printing to rapidly fabricate functional parts and equipment was one of the emergency solutions used to tackle these shortages. Using ultraviolet light in the UV-C band (wavelengths of 200 nm to 280 nm) might prove useful in sterilizing 3D printed parts, enabling their reusability. Most polymers, however, degrade under UV-C radiation, so it becomes necessary to determine what 3D printing materials can withstand the conditions found during medical equipment sterilization with UV-C. This paper analyzes the effect of accelerated aging through prolonged exposure to UV-C on the mechanical properties of parts 3D printed from a polycarbonate and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polymer (ABS-PC). Samples 3D printed using a material extrusion process (MEX) went through a 24-h UV-C exposure aging cycle and then were tested versus a control group for changes in tensile strength, compressive strength and some selected material creep characteristics. Testing showed minimal mechanical property degradation following the irradiation procedure, with tensile strength being statistically the same for irradiated parts as those in the control group. Irradiated parts showed small losses in stiffness (5.2%) and compressive strength (6.5%). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was employed in order to assess if any changes occurred in the material structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing)

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14 pages, 7996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Butadiene Sulfone as an Electrolyte Additive on the Formation of Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ Anode Materials

by Yu-Ruei Kung, Cheng-Yao Li, Panitat Hasin, Chia-Hung Su and Jeng-Yu Lin

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1965; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081965 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

In this study, butadiene sulfone (BS) was selected as an efficient electrolyte additive to stabilize the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film on the lithium titanium oxide (LTO) electrodes in Li-ion batteries (LIBs). It was found that the use of BS as an additive [...] Read more.

In this study, butadiene sulfone (BS) was selected as an efficient electrolyte additive to stabilize the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) film on the lithium titanium oxide (LTO) electrodes in Li-ion batteries (LIBs). It was found that the use of BS as an additive could accelerate the growth of stable SEI film on the LTO surface, leading to the improved electrochemical stability of LTO electrodes. It can be supported by the BS additive to effectively reduce the thickness of SEI film, and it significantly enhances the electron migration in the SEI film. Consequently, the LIB-based LTO anode in the electrolyte containing 0.5 wt.% BS showed a superior electrochemical performance to that in the absence of BS. This work provides a new prospect for an efficient electrolyte additive for next-generation LIBs-based LTO anodes, especially when discharged to low voltage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Composite Materials for Energy Storage)

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12 pages, 4726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Textile Waste Blends of Cotton and PET by Enzymatic Hydrolysis with Reusable Chemical Pretreatment

by Antika Boondaeng, Jureeporn Keabpimai, Preeyanuch Srichola, Pilanee Vaithanomsat, Chanaporn Trakunjae and Nanthavut Niyomvong

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081964 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3581

Abstract

Textile waste usually ends up in landfills and causes environmental pollution. In this study, pretreatment methods for textile recycling, including autoclaving, freezing alkali/urea soaking, and alkaline pretreatment, were applied to textile waste with various cotton/polyester blending ratios. The best condition for enzymatic hydrolysis [...] Read more.

Textile waste usually ends up in landfills and causes environmental pollution. In this study, pretreatment methods for textile recycling, including autoclaving, freezing alkali/urea soaking, and alkaline pretreatment, were applied to textile waste with various cotton/polyester blending ratios. The best condition for enzymatic hydrolysis was a 60/40 textile waste blend of cotton/polyethylene terephthalate (PET) with a reusable chemical pretreatment (15% NaOH) at 121 °C for 15 min. The hydrolysis of pretreated textile waste by cellulase was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) based on central composite design (CCD). The optimized conditions were 30 FPU/g of enzyme loading and 7% of substrate loading, which resulted in a maximum observed value of hydrolysis yield at 89.7%, corresponding to the predicted value of 87.8% after 96 h of incubation. The findings of this study suggest an optimistic solution for textile waste recycling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers from Renewable Sources and Their Applications II)

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13 pages, 2641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reversible Thermo-Optical Response Nanocomposites Based on RAFT Symmetric Triblock Copolymers (ABA) of Acrylamide and N-Isopropylacrylamide and Gold Nanoparticles

by Nery M. Aguilar, Jose Manuel Perez-Aguilar, Valeria J. González-Coronel, Hugo Martínez-Gutiérrez, Teresa Zayas Pérez, Enrique González-Vergara, Brenda L. Sanchez-Gaytan and Guillermo Soriano-Moro

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1963; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081963 - 21 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2220

Abstract

The development of composite materials with thermo-optical properties based on smart polymeric systems and nanostructures have been extensively studied. Due to the fact of its ability to self-assemble into a structure that generates a significant change in the refractive index, one of most [...] Read more.

The development of composite materials with thermo-optical properties based on smart polymeric systems and nanostructures have been extensively studied. Due to the fact of its ability to self-assemble into a structure that generates a significant change in the refractive index, one of most attractive thermo-responsive polymers is poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM), as well as its derivatives such as multiblock copolymers. In this work, symmetric triblock copolymers of polyacrylamide (PAM) and PNIPAM (PAM_x-b-PNIPAM_y-b-PAM_x) with different block lengths were prepared by reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization (RAFT). The ABA sequence of these triblock copolymers was obtained in only two steps using a symmetrical trithiocarbonate as a transfer agent. The copolymers were combined with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to prepare nanocomposite materials with tunable optical properties. The results show that copolymers behave differently in solution due to the fact of variations in their composition. Therefore, they have a different impact on the nanoparticle formation process. Likewise, as expected, an increase in the length of the PNIPAM block promotes a better thermo-optical response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Block Copolymers: Self-Assembly and Applications)

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22 pages, 2702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Evaluation of an Innovative Approach Using Niosomes Based Polymeric Microneedles to Deliver Dual Antioxidant Drugs

by Ahlam Zaid Alkilani, Hadeel Abo-Zour, Haneen A. Basheer, Hana Abu-Zour and Ryan F. Donnelly

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1962; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081962 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2795

Abstract

Ascorbic acid (AA) and caffeine (CAFF) work to protect cells from ultraviolet (UV) radiation and slow down the photoaging process of the skin. However, cosmetic application of AA and CAFF is limited due to poor penetration across the skin and rapid oxidation of [...] Read more.

Ascorbic acid (AA) and caffeine (CAFF) work to protect cells from ultraviolet (UV) radiation and slow down the photoaging process of the skin. However, cosmetic application of AA and CAFF is limited due to poor penetration across the skin and rapid oxidation of AA. The aim of this study was to design and evaluate the dermal delivery of dual antioxidants utilizing microneedles (MNs) loaded with AA and CAFF niosomes. The niosomal nanovesicles were prepared using the thin film method and had particle sizes ranging from 130.6–411.2 nm and a negative Zeta potential of around −35 mV. The niosomal formulation was then combined with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) to create an aqueous polymer solution. The best skin deposition of AA and CAFF was achieved with the formulation containing 5% PEG 400 (M3) and PVP. Furthermore, the role of AA and CAFF as antioxidants in preventing cancer formation has been well-established. Here we validated the antioxidant properties of ascorbic acid (AA) and caffeine (CAFF) in a novel niosomal formulation referred to as M3 by testing its ability to prevent H₂O₂-indued cell damage and apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Results showed that M3 was able to shield MCF-7 cells from H₂O₂ induced damage at concentrations below 2.1 µg/mL for AA and 1.05 µg/mL for CAFF, and also exhibited anticancer effects at higher concentrations of 210 µg/mL for AA and 105 µg/mL. The formulations were stable for two months at room temperature in terms of moisture and drug content. The use of MNs and niosomal carriers could be a promising approach for dermal delivery of hydrophilic drugs like AA and CAFF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and Drug Delivery)

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19 pages, 7443 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradable Preformed Particle Gel (PPG) Made of Natural Chitosan Material for Water Shut-Off Application

by Reem Elaf, Ahmed Ben Ali, Mohammed Saad, Ibnelwaleed A. Hussein, Hassan Nimir and Baojun Bai

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1961; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081961 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2428

Abstract

Oil and gas extraction frequently produces substantial volumes of produced water, leading to several mechanical and environmental issues. Several methods have been applied over decades, including chemical processes such as in-situ crosslinked polymer gel and preformed particle gel, which are the most effective [...] Read more.

Oil and gas extraction frequently produces substantial volumes of produced water, leading to several mechanical and environmental issues. Several methods have been applied over decades, including chemical processes such as in-situ crosslinked polymer gel and preformed particle gel, which are the most effective nowadays. This study developed a green and biodegradable PPG made of PAM and chitosan as a blocking agent for water shutoff, which will contribute to combating the toxicity of several commercially used PPGs. The applicability of chitosan to act as a crosslinker has been confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy and observed by scanning electron microscopy. Extensive swelling capacity measurements and rheological experiments were performed to examine the optimal formulation of PAM/Cs based on several PAM and chitosan concentrations and the effects of typical reservoir conditions, such as salinity, temperature, and pH. The optimum concentrations of PAM with 0.5 wt% chitosan were between 5–9 wt%, while the optimum chitosan amount with 6.5 wt% PAM was in the 0.25–0.5 wt% range, as these concentrations can produce PPGs with high swellability and sufficient strength. The swelling capacity of PAM/Cs is lower in high saline water (HSW) with a TDS of 67.2976 g/L compared with fresh water, which is related to the osmotic pressure gradient between the swelling medium and the PPG. The swelling capacity in freshwater was up to 80.37 g/g, while it is 18.73 g/g in HSW. The storage moduli were higher in HSW than freshwater, with ranges of 1695–5000 Pa and 2053–5989 Pa, respectively. The storage modulus of PAM/Cs samples was higher in a neutral medium (pH = 6), where the fluctuation behavior in different pH conditions is related to electrostatic repulsions and hydrogen bond formation. The increase in swelling capacity caused by the progressive increment in temperature is associated with the amide group’s hydrolysis to carboxylate groups. The sizes of the swollen particles are controllable since they are designed to be 0.63–1.62 mm in DIW and 0.86–1.00 mm in HSW. PAM/Cs showed promising swelling and rheological characteristics while demonstrating long-term thermal and hydrolytic stability in high-temperature and high-salinity conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Gels in Oil and Gas Applications)

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19 pages, 4813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Porosity on Mechanical Properties of PUR-Based Composites: Experimentally Derived Mathematical Approach

by Miroslav Černý, Josef Petruš and Ivana Chamradová

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1960; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081960 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1426

Abstract

The work is focused on the mechanical behavior description of porous filled composites that is not based on simulations or exact physical models, including different assumptions and simplifications with further comparison with real behavior of materials with different extents of accordance. The proposed [...] Read more.

The work is focused on the mechanical behavior description of porous filled composites that is not based on simulations or exact physical models, including different assumptions and simplifications with further comparison with real behavior of materials with different extents of accordance. The proposed process begins by measurement and further fitting of data by spatial exponential function z_c = z_m · p₁^b · p₂^c, where z_c/z_m is mechanical property value for composite/nonporous matrix, p₁/p₂ are suitable dimensionless structural parameters (equal to 1 for nonporous matrix) and b/c are exponents ensuring the best fitting. The fitting is followed by interpolation of b and c, which are logarithmic variables based on the observed mechanical property value of nonporous matrix with additions of further properties of matrix in some cases. The work is dedicated to the utilization of further suitable pairs of structural parameters to one pair published earlier. The proposed mathematical approach was demonstrated for PUR/rubber composites with a wide range of rubber filling, various porosity, and different polyurethane matrices. The mechanical properties derived from tensile testing included elastic modulus, ultimate strength and strain, and energy need for ultimate strain achievement. The proposed relationships between structure/composition and mechanical behavior seem to be suitable for materials containing randomly shaped filler particles and voids and, therefore, could be universal (and also hold materials with less complicated microstructure) after potential following and more exact research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advanced Polymeric Composites: Processing, Characterization and Mechanical Behavior)

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15 pages, 4229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Starch/Lignin Nanoparticle Composites Biofilms for Food Packaging Applications

by Xunwen Sun, Qingye Li, Hejun Wu, Zehang Zhou, Shiyi Feng, Pengcheng Deng, Huawei Zou, Dong Tian and Canhui Lu

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1959; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081959 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4984

Abstract

Construction of sustainable composite biofilms from natural biopolymers are greatly promising for advanced packaging applications due to their biodegradable, biocompatible, and renewable properties. In this work, sustainable advanced food packaging films are developed by incorporating lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) as green nanofillers to starch [...] Read more.

Construction of sustainable composite biofilms from natural biopolymers are greatly promising for advanced packaging applications due to their biodegradable, biocompatible, and renewable properties. In this work, sustainable advanced food packaging films are developed by incorporating lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) as green nanofillers to starch films. This seamless combination of bio-nanofiller with biopolymer matrix is enabled by the uniform size of nanofillers and the strong interfacial hydrogen bonding. As a result, the as-prepared biocomposites exhibit enhanced mechanical properties, thermal stability, and antioxidant activity. Moreover, they also present outstanding ultraviolet (UV) irradiation shielding performance. As a proof of concept in the application of food packaging, we evaluate the effect of composite films on delaying oxidative deterioration of soybean oil. The results indicate our composite film could significantly decrease peroxide value (POV), saponification value (SV), and acid value (AV) to delay oxidation of soybean oil during storage. Overall, this work provides a simple and effective method for the preparation of starch-based films with enhanced antioxidant and barrier properties for advanced food packaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lignin: Structure, Properties, and Application in Composite Materials and Chemicals)

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27 pages, 13636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Road Performance of Polyurethane Cold-Recycled Mixture

by Zhenxia Li, Tengteng Guo, Yuanzhao Chen, Tong Zhang, Deqing Tang, Menghui Hao, Xu Zhao and Jinyuan Liu

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1958; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081958 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1921

Abstract

To give full play to the advantages of polyurethane as a binder, such as mixing at room temperature, short curing time, and high curing strength, polyurethane was used as the binder of a waste asphalt mixture, and the pavement performance of PCRM (Polyurethane [...] Read more.

To give full play to the advantages of polyurethane as a binder, such as mixing at room temperature, short curing time, and high curing strength, polyurethane was used as the binder of a waste asphalt mixture, and the pavement performance of PCRM (Polyurethane Cold-Recycled Mixture) was analyzed. Firstly, the adhesion performance of polyurethane binder with new and old aggregates was evaluated using the adhesion test. Then, the mix proportion was designed according to the material characteristics, and the reasonable molding process, maintenance conditions, design indexes, and the optimal binder ratio were proposed. Secondly, the high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance, water stability, and compressive resilient modulus of the mixture were evaluated through laboratory tests. Finally, the pore structure and microscopic morphology of polyurethane cold-recycled mixture were analyzed by industrial CT (Computerized Tomography) scanning, and the failure mechanism of polyurethane cold-recycled mixture was revealed. The test results show that the adhesion between polyurethane and RAP (Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement) is good, and the splitting strength of the mixture increases greatly when the ratio of glue to stone reaches 9%. Polyurethane binder has low sensitivity to temperature and poor water stability. With the increase of RAP content, the high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance, and compressive resilient modulus of PCRM showed a decreasing trend. When the RAP content was less than 40%, the freeze–thaw splitting strength ratio of the mixture was improved. After the incorporation of RAP, the interface was more complex and there were many micron-scale holes, cracks, and other defects; after high-temperature immersion, the polyurethane binder appeared to show a certain degree of peeling at the holes of the RAP surface. After freeze–thaw, the polyurethane binder on the surface of the mixture produced many cracks. The study of polyurethane cold-recycled mixture is of great significance to realize green construction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Development in Geopolymers)

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15 pages, 6000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungal Selectivity and Biodegradation Effects by White and Brown Rot Fungi for Wood Biomass Pretreatment

by Jiyun Qi, Fangfang Li, Lu Jia, Xiaoyuan Zhang, Shuduan Deng, Bei Luo, Yonghui Zhou, Mizi Fan and Yan Xia

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1957; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081957 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2899

Abstract

The biodegradation path and mechanism of wood varies depending on diverse fungi and tree species, as fungi possess selectivity in degradation of versatile wood components. This paper aims to clarify the actual and precise selectivity of white and brown rot fungi and the [...] Read more.

The biodegradation path and mechanism of wood varies depending on diverse fungi and tree species, as fungi possess selectivity in degradation of versatile wood components. This paper aims to clarify the actual and precise selectivity of white and brown rot fungi and the biodegradation effects on different tree species. Softwood (Pinus yunnanensis and Cunninghamia lanceolata) and hardwood (Populus yunnanensis and Hevea brasiliensis) were subjected to a biopretreating process by white rot fungus Trametes versicolor, and brown rot fungi Gloeophyllum trabeum and Rhodonia placenta with various conversion periods. The results showed that the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor had a selective biodegradation in softwood, which preferentially convert wood hemicellulose and lignin, but cellulose was retained selectively. Conversely, Trametes versicolor achieved simultaneous conversion of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in hardwood. Both brown rot fungi species preferentially converted carbohydrates, but R. placenta had a selectivity for the conversion of cellulose. In addition, morphological observation showed that the microstructures within wood changed significantly, and the enlarged pores and the improved accessibility could be beneficial for the penetration and accessibility of treating substrates. The research outcomes could serve as fundamental knowhows and offer potentials for effective bioenergy production and bioengineering of bioresources, and provide a reference for further application of fungal biotechnology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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16 pages, 4505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on the Distribution of Rodlike Particles in Laminar Flows of Power Law Fluids Past a Cylinder

by Wenqian Lin, Zhenna Li, Shanliang Zhang and Jianzhong Lin

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1956; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081956 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1332

Abstract

The contraction/expansion laminar flow containing rodlike particles in power-law fluid is studied numerically when the particles are in a dilute phase. The fluid velocity vector and streamline of flow are given at the finite Reynolds number (Re) region. The effects of Re, power [...] Read more.

The contraction/expansion laminar flow containing rodlike particles in power-law fluid is studied numerically when the particles are in a dilute phase. The fluid velocity vector and streamline of flow are given at the finite Reynolds number (Re) region. The effects of Re, power index n and particle aspect ratio β on the spatial and orientation distributions of particles are analyzed. The results showed that for the shear-thickening fluid, particles are dispersed in the whole area in the contraction flow, while more particles are gathered near the two walls in the expansion flow. The spatial distribution of particles with small β is more regular. Β has a significant, n has a moderate, but Re has a small impact on the spatial distribution of particles in the contraction and expansion flow. In the case of large Re, most particles are oriented in the flow direction. The particles near the wall show obvious orientation along the flow direction. In shear-thickening fluid, when the flow changes from contraction to expansion, the orientation distribution of particles becomes more dispersed; while in shear-thinning fluid, the opposite is true. More particles orient to the flow direction in expansion flow than that in contraction flow. The particles with a large β tend to align with the flow direction more obviously. Re, n and β have great influence on the orientation distribution of particles in the contraction and expansion flow. Whether the particles initially located at the inlet can bypass the cylinder depends on the transverse position and initial orientation of the particles at the inlet. The number of particles with θ₀ = 90° bypassing the cylinder is the largest, followed by θ₀ = 45° and θ₀ = 0°. The conclusions obtained in this paper have reference value for practical engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Polymer Physics and Theory)

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24 pages, 10708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards an Advanced Modeling of Hybrid Composite Cutting: Heat Discontinuity at Interface Region

by Brahim Salem, Ali Mkaddem, Sami Ghazali, Malek Habak, Bassem F. Felemban and Abdessalem Jarraya

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1955; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081955 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1843

Abstract

In this study, a thermomechanical model is developed to simulate a finite drilling set of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers (CFRP)/Titanium (Ti) hybrid structures widely known for their energy saving performance. The model applies different heat fluxes at the trim plane of the two [...] Read more.

In this study, a thermomechanical model is developed to simulate a finite drilling set of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers (CFRP)/Titanium (Ti) hybrid structures widely known for their energy saving performance. The model applies different heat fluxes at the trim plane of the two phases of the composite, owing to cutting forces, in order to simulate the temperature evolution at the workpiece during the cutting step. A user-defined subroutine VDFLUX was implemented to address the temperature-coupled displacement approach. A user-material subroutine VUMAT was developed to describe Hashin damage-coupled elasticity model for the CFRP phase while Johnson–Cook damage criteria was considered for describing the behavior of titanium phase. The two subroutines coordinate to evaluate sensitively the heat effects at the CFRP/Ti interface and within the subsurface of the structure at each increment. The proposed model has been first calibrated based on tensile standard tests. The material removal process was then investigated versus cutting conditions. Predictions show discontinuity in temperature field at interface that should further favor damage to localize especially at CFRP phase. The obtained results highlight the significant effects of fibre orientation in dominating cutting temperature and thermal effects over the whole hybrid structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Polymer Materials II)

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12 pages, 3042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studies on the Application of Polyimidobenzimidazole Based Nanofiber Material as the Separation Membrane of Lithium-Ion Battery

by Yu-Hsiang Lu, Yu-Chang Huang, Yen-Zen Wang and Ko-Shan Ho

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1954; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081954 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2093

Abstract

Aromatic polyimide has good mechanical properties and high-temperature resistance. Based on this, benzimidazole is introduced into the main chain, and its intermolecular (internal) hydrogen bond can increase mechanical and thermal properties and electrolyte wettability. Aromatic dianhydride 4,4′-oxydiphthalic anhydride (ODPA) and benzimidazole-containing diamine 6,6′-bis [...] Read more.

Aromatic polyimide has good mechanical properties and high-temperature resistance. Based on this, benzimidazole is introduced into the main chain, and its intermolecular (internal) hydrogen bond can increase mechanical and thermal properties and electrolyte wettability. Aromatic dianhydride 4,4′-oxydiphthalic anhydride (ODPA) and benzimidazole-containing diamine 6,6′-bis [2-(4-aminophenyl)benzimidazole] (BAPBI) were synthesized by means of a two-step method. Imidazole polyimide (BI-PI) was used to make a nanofiber membrane separator (NFMS) by electrospinning process, using its high porosity and continuous pore characteristics to reduce the ion diffusion resistance of the NFMS, enhancing the rapid charge and discharge performance. BI-PI has good thermal properties, with a Td5% of 527 °C and a dynamic mechanical analysis Tg of 395 °C. The tensile strength of the NFMS increased from 10.92MPa to 51.15MPa after being hot-pressed. BI-PI has good miscibility with LIB electrolyte, the porosity of the film is 73%, and the electrolyte absorption rate reaches 1454%. That explains the higher ion conductivity (2.02 mS cm⁻¹) of NFMS than commercial one (0.105 mS cm⁻¹). When applied to LIB, it is found that it has high cyclic stability and excellent rate performance at high current density (2 C). BI-PI (120 Ω) has a lower charge transfer resistance than the commercial separator Celgard H1612 (143 Ω). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional and Conductive Polymer Thin Films III)

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15 pages, 6251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheological Characteristics of Starch-Based Biodegradable Blends

by Dong-Il Park, Yuzhen Dong, Shizhao Wang, Soo-Jeong Lee and Hyoung Jin Choi

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081953 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2679

Abstract

Thermoplastic starch was blended with commercially available biodegradable polyesters of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) for its improved performance and processability. The morphology and elemental composition of these biodegradable polymer blends were observed by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray [...] Read more.

Thermoplastic starch was blended with commercially available biodegradable polyesters of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) for its improved performance and processability. The morphology and elemental composition of these biodegradable polymer blends were observed by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, respectively, while their thermal properties were analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermal calorimetry. For rheological analysis, the steady shear and dynamic oscillation tests of three samples at various temperatures were investigated using a rotational rheometer. All three samples exhibited significant shear thinning at all measured temperatures, and their shear viscosity behavior was plotted using the Carreau model. The frequency sweep tests showed that the thermoplastic starch sample exhibited a solid state at all temperatures tested, whereas both starch/PBAT and starch/PBAT/PLA blend samples exhibited viscoelastic liquid behavior after the melting temperature such that their loss modulus at low frequencies was greater than the storage modulus, and inversion occurred at high frequencies (storage modulus > loss modulus). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Rheology of Polymers)

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17 pages, 5376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Fusion Temperature on Nonisothermal Crystallization Kinetics of Polyamide 6

by Ahmed Nasr and Petr Svoboda

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081952 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2876

Abstract

The effect of fusion temperature and duration on the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of polyamide 6 (PA6) was investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and a polarized optical microscope (OM). The rapid cooling method involved heating the polymer above its melting point, holding it [...] Read more.

The effect of fusion temperature and duration on the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of polyamide 6 (PA6) was investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and a polarized optical microscope (OM). The rapid cooling method involved heating the polymer above its melting point, holding it at this temperature to ensure complete melting, and then rapidly cooling it to the crystallization temperature. By monitoring the heat flow during cooling, the crystallization kinetics of PA6 were characterized, including the degree of crystallinity, crystallization temperature, and crystallization rate. The study found that changing the fusion temperature and duration significantly impacted the crystallization kinetics of PA6. Increasing the fusion temperature decreased the degree of crystallinity, with smaller nucleation centers requiring a higher degree of supercooling for crystallization. The crystallization temperature shifted towards lower temperatures, and the crystallization kinetics slowed down. The study also found that lengthening the fusion time raised the relative crystallinity, but any further increase did not result in a significant change. The study showed that an increase in fusion temperature led to a longer time needed to reach a given level of crystallinity, reducing the crystallization rate. This can be explained by the thermodynamics of the crystallization process, where higher temperatures promote molecular mobility and crystal growth. Moreover, the study revealed that decreasing a polymer’s fusion temperature can lead to a greater degree of nucleation and faster growth of the crystalline phase, which can significantly impact the values of the Avrami parameters used to characterize the crystallization kinetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crystallization in Polymer Science)

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23 pages, 754 KiB

Open AccessReview

Potential Additives in Natural Rubber-Modified Bitumen: A Review

by Nurul Farhana Rohayzi, Herda Yati Binti Katman, Mohd Rasdan Ibrahim, Shuhairy Norhisham and Noorhazlinda Abd Rahman

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1951; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081951 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3905

Abstract

Conventional bitumen pavement is no longer suitable for handling increasing loads and weather variations, which cause road deterioration, Thus, the modification of bitumen has been suggested to counter this issue. This study provides a detailed assessment of various additives for modifying natural rubber-modified [...] Read more.

Conventional bitumen pavement is no longer suitable for handling increasing loads and weather variations, which cause road deterioration, Thus, the modification of bitumen has been suggested to counter this issue. This study provides a detailed assessment of various additives for modifying natural rubber-modified bitumen used in road construction. This work will focus on the use of additives with cup lump natural rubber (CLNR), which has recently started to gain attention among researchers, especially in rubber-producing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Furthermore, this paper aims to briefly review how the addition of additives or modifiers helps elevate the performance of bitumen by highlighting the significant properties of modified bitumen after the addition of modifiers. Moreover, the amount and method of application of each additive are discussed further to obtain the optimum value for future implementation. On the basis of past studies, this paper will review the utilisation of several types of additives, including polyphosphoric acid, Evotherm, mangosteen powder, trimethyl-quinoline and sulphur, and the application of xylene and toluene to ensure the homogeneity of the rubberised bitumen. Numerous studies were conducted to verify the performance of various types and compositions of additives, particularly in terms of physical and rheological properties. In general, additives enhance the properties of conventional bitumen. Future research should investigate CLNR because studies on its utilisation are limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

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22 pages, 2459 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Synthesis and Separation Application of Metal-Organic Framework-Based Mixed-Matrix Membranes

by Lu Wang, Jingzhe Huang, Zonghao Li, Zhiwu Han and Jianhua Fan

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1950; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081950 - 20 Apr 2023

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5240

Abstract

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials assembled from organic ligands and metallic secondary building blocks. Their special structural composition gives them the advantages of high porosity, high specific surface area, adjustable pore size, and good stability. MOF membranes and MOF-based mixed-matrix membranes [...] Read more.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous crystalline materials assembled from organic ligands and metallic secondary building blocks. Their special structural composition gives them the advantages of high porosity, high specific surface area, adjustable pore size, and good stability. MOF membranes and MOF-based mixed-matrix membranes prepared from MOF crystals have ultra-high porosity, uniform pore size, excellent adsorption properties, high selectivity, and high throughput, which contribute to their being widely used in separation fields. This review summarizes the synthesis methods of MOF membranes, including in situ growth, secondary growth, and electrochemical methods. Mixed-matrix membranes composed of Zeolite Imidazolate Frameworks (ZIF), University of Oslo (UIO), and Materials of Institute Lavoisier (MIL) frameworks are introduced. In addition, the main applications of MOF membranes in lithium–sulfur battery separators, wastewater purification, seawater desalination, and gas separation are reviewed. Finally, we review the development prospects of MOF membranes for the large-scale application of MOF membranes in factories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Membranes and Films)

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13 pages, 4984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Performance of a Step-Lap Joint under Tensile Load: A Numerical Study

by Murat Demiral and Ali Mamedov

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1949; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081949 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1759

Abstract

In many technical domains, adhesively bonded joints have been employed extensively. These joints perform poorly against peel stresses despite having good shear characteristics. A step-lap joint (SLJ) is one of the techniques used to reduce the peel stresses at the edges of the [...] Read more.

In many technical domains, adhesively bonded joints have been employed extensively. These joints perform poorly against peel stresses despite having good shear characteristics. A step-lap joint (SLJ) is one of the techniques used to reduce the peel stresses at the edges of the overlap area to avoid damages. In these joints, the butted laminations of each layer are successively offset in succeeding layers in the same direction. Bonded joints are subjected to cyclic loadings in addition to static loads. It is difficult to predict their fatigue life accurately; however, this information must be clarified to explain their failure characteristics. To this end, the fatigue response of an adhesively bonded step-lap joint subjected to tensile loading was investigated with the developed finite-element (FE) model. In the joint, toughened type DP 460 and A2024-T3 aluminium alloys were used for the adhesive layer and adherends, respectively. The cohesive zone model with static and fatigue damages were linked to each other and were used to represent the response of the adhesive layer. The model was implemented using an ABAQUS/Standard user-defined UMAT subroutine. Experiments found in the literature served as a basis for validating the numerical model. The fatigue performance of a step-lap joint for various configurations subjected to tensile loading was examined thoroughly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Measurement, Prediction, and Testing Techniques in Polymer Manufacturing, Processing, and End-Use II)

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17 pages, 3444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Lead and Diclofenac Removal from Aqueous Media Using a Composite Sorbent of Silica Core and Polyelectrolyte Coacervate Shell

by Irina Morosanu, Florin Bucatariu, Daniela Fighir, Carmen Paduraru, Marcela Mihai and Carmen Teodosiu

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1948; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081948 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1307

Abstract

The modification of inorganic surfaces with weak cationic polyelectrolytes by direct deposition through precipitation is a fast approach to generating composites with high numbers of functional groups. The core/shell composites present very good sorption capacity for heavy metal ions and negatively charged organic [...] Read more.

The modification of inorganic surfaces with weak cationic polyelectrolytes by direct deposition through precipitation is a fast approach to generating composites with high numbers of functional groups. The core/shell composites present very good sorption capacity for heavy metal ions and negatively charged organic molecules from aqueous media. The sorbed amount of lead ions, used as a model for priority pollutants such as heavy metals, and diclofenac sodium salt, as an organic contaminant model for emerging pollutants, depended strongly on the organic content of the composite and less on the nature of contaminants, due to the different retention mechanisms (complexation vs. electrostatics/hydrophobics). Two experimental approaches were considered: (i) simultaneous adsorption of the two pollutants from a binary mixture and (ii) the sequential retention of each pollutant from monocomponent solutions. The simultaneous adsorption also considered process optimization by using the central composite design methodology to study the univariate effects of contact time and initial solution acidity with the purpose of enabling further practical applications in water/wastewater treatment. Sorbent regeneration after multiple sorption-desorption cycles was also investigated to assess its feasibility. Based on different non-linear regressions, the fitting of four isotherms (Langmuir, Freundlich, Hill, and Redlich–Peterson models) and three kinetics models (pseudo-first order (PFO), pseudo-second order (PSO), and two-compartment first order (TC)) has been carried out. The best agreement with experiments was found for the Langmuir isotherm and the PFO kinetic model. Silica/polyelectrolytes with a high number of functional groups may be considered efficient and versatile sorbents that can be used in wastewater treatment processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Composites: Synthesis, Characterization and Application)

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14 pages, 8666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Graphitized Carbon Fibers from Fusible Lignin and Their Application in Supercapacitors

by Linfei Zhou, Xiangyu You, Lingjie Wang, Shijie Qi, Ruichen Wang, Yasumitsu Uraki and Huijie Zhang

Polymers 2023, 15(8), 1947; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15081947 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Lignin-based carbon fibers (LCFs) with graphitized structures decorated on their surfaces were successfully prepared using the simultaneous catalyst loading and chemical stabilization of melt-spun lignin fibers, followed by quick carbonization functionalized as catalytic graphitization. This technique not only enables surficial graphitized LCF preparation [...] Read more.

Lignin-based carbon fibers (LCFs) with graphitized structures decorated on their surfaces were successfully prepared using the simultaneous catalyst loading and chemical stabilization of melt-spun lignin fibers, followed by quick carbonization functionalized as catalytic graphitization. This technique not only enables surficial graphitized LCF preparation at a relatively low temperature of 1200 °C but also avoids additional treatments used in conventional carbon fiber production. The LCFs were then used as electrode materials in a supercapacitor assembly. Electrochemical measurements confirmed that LCF-0.4, a sample with a relatively low specific surface area of 89.9 m² g⁻¹, exhibited the best electrochemical properties. The supercapacitor with LCF-0.4 had a specific capacitance of 10.7 F g⁻¹ at 0.5 A g⁻¹, a power density of 869.5 W kg⁻¹, an energy density of 15.7 Wh kg⁻¹, and a capacitance retention of 100% after 1500 cycles, even without activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developments in the Thermal, Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Polymer-Based Composites)

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Polymers, Volume 15, Issue 8 (April-2 2023) – 167 articles

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