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Volume 4
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Gels, Volume 4, Issue 2 (June 2018) – 31 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The simulated fiber network gel formed by the dispersion of semi-flexible polymers that have a lateral attractive interaction. Simulation evidence suggests that the regularity in the fiber diameter in this type of self-assembled fiber gel network is controlled by an interplay between the twisting of the chains within the bundle, which creates more contacts between the chains and rigidification upon chain bundling, which increases the energetic cost of bundling. View the paper here.
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9 pages, 1569 KiB  
Article
Prevention of the Aggregation of Nanoparticles during the Synthesis of Nanogold-Containing Silica Aerogels
by István Lázár and Hanna Judit Szabó
Gels 2018, 4(2), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020055 - 19 Jun 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5340
Abstract
Nanogold is widely used in many areas of physics and chemistry due to its environment-sensitive plasmon resonance absorption. The immobilization of gold nanoparticles in highly porous silica aerogel offers an attractive alternative to liquid gold solutions as they show a mechanically stable structure, [...] Read more.
Nanogold is widely used in many areas of physics and chemistry due to its environment-sensitive plasmon resonance absorption. The immobilization of gold nanoparticles in highly porous silica aerogel offers an attractive alternative to liquid gold solutions as they show a mechanically stable structure, are permeable to gases, and can even be used at elevated temperatures. We have found that the commercially available citrate-stabilized 10 nm gold nanoparticles may suffer from aggregation prior to or under the base-catalyzed gelation process of tetramethoxy silane. In the wet gels, Au particles increased in size, changed shape, and demonstrated the loss of plasmon resonance absorption, due to the formation of larger aggregates. We have studied a range of water-miscible organic solvents, stabilizing agents, and the gelation conditions to minimize changes from occurring in the aerogel setting and the supercritical drying process. It has been found that atmospheric carbon dioxide has a significant effect on aggregation, and it cannot be entirely excluded under normal synthetic conditions. Methanol resulted in an increase in the particle size only, while dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, and urea changed the shape of nanoparticles to rod-like shapes, and diols led to an increase in both size and shape. However, using the polymeric stabilizer poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) efficiently prevented the aggregation of the particles, even in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide, and allowed the production of nanoAu containing silica aerogels in a single step, without the modification of technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2018)
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37 pages, 5345 KiB  
Review
Functional Stimuli-Responsive Gels: Hydrogels and Microgels
by Coro Echeverria, Susete N. Fernandes, Maria H. Godinho, João Paulo Borges and Paula I. P. Soares
Gels 2018, 4(2), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020054 - 12 Jun 2018
Cited by 147 | Viewed by 13263
Abstract
One strategy that has gained much attention in the last decades is the understanding and further mimicking of structures and behaviours found in nature, as inspiration to develop materials with additional functionalities. This review presents recent advances in stimuli-responsive gels with emphasis on [...] Read more.
One strategy that has gained much attention in the last decades is the understanding and further mimicking of structures and behaviours found in nature, as inspiration to develop materials with additional functionalities. This review presents recent advances in stimuli-responsive gels with emphasis on functional hydrogels and microgels. The first part of the review highlights the high impact of stimuli-responsive hydrogels in materials science. From macro to micro scale, the review also collects the most recent studies on the preparation of hybrid polymeric microgels composed of a nanoparticle (able to respond to external stimuli), encapsulated or grown into a stimuli-responsive matrix (microgel). This combination gave rise to interesting multi-responsive functional microgels and paved a new path for the preparation of multi-stimuli “smart” systems. Finally, special attention is focused on a new generation of functional stimuli-responsive polymer hydrogels able to self-shape (shape-memory) and/or self-repair. This last functionality could be considered as the closing loop for smart polymeric gels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stimuli-Responsive Gels)
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13 pages, 1345 KiB  
Article
Propagation of Fatigue Cracks in Friction of Brittle Hydrogels
by Tetsuo Yamaguchi, Ryuichiro Sato and Yoshinori Sawae
Gels 2018, 4(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020053 - 8 Jun 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5753
Abstract
In order to understand fatigue crack propagation behavior in the friction of brittle hydrogels, we conducted reciprocating friction experiments between a hemi-cylindrical indenter and an agarose hydrogel block. We found that the fatigue life is greatly affected by the applied normal load as [...] Read more.
In order to understand fatigue crack propagation behavior in the friction of brittle hydrogels, we conducted reciprocating friction experiments between a hemi-cylindrical indenter and an agarose hydrogel block. We found that the fatigue life is greatly affected by the applied normal load as well as adhesion strength at the bottom of the gel–substrate interface. On the basis of in situ visualizations of the contact areas and observations of the fracture surfaces after the friction experiments, we suggest that the mechanical condition altered by the delamination of the hydrogel from the bottom substrate plays an essential role in determining the fatigue life of the hydrogel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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34 pages, 7610 KiB  
Review
Carbohydrate Derived Organogelators and the Corresponding Functional Gels Developed in Recent Time
by Nabamita Basu, Arijit Chakraborty and Rina Ghosh
Gels 2018, 4(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020052 - 30 May 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7675
Abstract
Owing to their multifarious applicability, studies of molecular and supramolecular gelators and their corresponding gels have gained momentum, particularly in the last two decades. Hydrophobic–hydrophilic balance, different solvent parameters, gelator–gelator and gelator–solvent interactions, including different noncovalent intermolecular interactive forces like H-bonding, ionic interactions, [...] Read more.
Owing to their multifarious applicability, studies of molecular and supramolecular gelators and their corresponding gels have gained momentum, particularly in the last two decades. Hydrophobic–hydrophilic balance, different solvent parameters, gelator–gelator and gelator–solvent interactions, including different noncovalent intermolecular interactive forces like H-bonding, ionic interactions, π–π interactions, van der Waals interactions, etc., cause the supramolecular gel assembly of micro and nano scales with different types of morphologies, depending on the gelator, solvent, and condition of gelation. These gel structures can be utilized for making template inorganic superstructures for potential application in separation, generation of nanocomposite materials, and other applications like self-healing, controlled drug encapsulation, release and delivery, as structuring agents, oil-spill recovery, for preparation of semi-conducting fabrics, and in many other fields. Sugars, being easily available, inexpensive, and nontoxic natural resources with multi functionality and well-defined chirality are attractive starting materials for the preparation of sugar-based gelators. This review will focus on compilation of sugar derived organogelators and the corresponding gels, along with the potential applications that have been developed and published recently between January 2015 and March 2018. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Supramolecular Gels)
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13 pages, 1239 KiB  
Review
Application of Composite Hydrogels to Control Physical Properties in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine
by Cassidy Sheffield, Kaylee Meyers, Emil Johnson and Rupak M. Rajachar
Gels 2018, 4(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020051 - 30 May 2018
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 5296
Abstract
The development of biomaterials for the restoration of the normal tissue structure–function relationship in pathological conditions as well as acute and chronic injury is an area of intense investigation. More recently, the use of tailored or composite hydrogels for tissue engineering and regenerative [...] Read more.
The development of biomaterials for the restoration of the normal tissue structure–function relationship in pathological conditions as well as acute and chronic injury is an area of intense investigation. More recently, the use of tailored or composite hydrogels for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine has sought to bridge the gap between natural tissues and applied biomaterials more clearly. By applying traditional concepts in engineering composites, these hydrogels represent hierarchical structured materials that translate more closely the key guiding principles required for improved recovery of tissue architecture and functional behavior, including physical, mass transport, and biological properties. For tissue-engineering scaffolds in general, and more specifically in composite hydrogel materials, each of these properties provide unique qualities that are essential for proper augmentation and repair following disease and injury. The broad focus of this review is on physical properties in particular, static and dynamic mechanical properties provided by composite hydrogel materials and their link to native tissue architecture and, ultimately, tissue-specific applications for composite hydrogels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tough Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications)
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12 pages, 2116 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Mesh Size in Model Polymer Networks Consisting of Tetra-Arm and Linear Poly(ethylene glycol)s
by Yui Tsuji, Xiang Li and Mitsuhiro Shibayama
Gels 2018, 4(2), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020050 - 25 May 2018
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 8155
Abstract
The structure and mechanical properties of model polymer networks consisting of alternating tetra-functional poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs) and bis-functional linear PEGs were investigated by dynamic light scattering and rheological measurements. The sizes of the correlation blob ( ξ c ) and the elastic blob [...] Read more.
The structure and mechanical properties of model polymer networks consisting of alternating tetra-functional poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs) and bis-functional linear PEGs were investigated by dynamic light scattering and rheological measurements. The sizes of the correlation blob ( ξ c ) and the elastic blob ( ξ e l ) were obtained from these measurements and compared to the theoretical mesh size, the geometric blob ( ξ g ), calculated by using the tree-like approximation. By fixing the concentration of tetra-PEGs and tuning the molecular weight of linear-PEGs, we systematically compared these blob sizes in two cases: complete network (Case A) and incomplete network (Case B). The correlation blob, ξ c , obtained by dynamic light scattering (DLS) was found to obey the well-known concentration dependence for polymer solutions in semidilute regime ( ξ c ~ ϕ − 3 / 4 ) irrespective of the Cases. On the other hand, the G ′ was strongly dependent on the Cases: For Case A, G ′ was weakly dependent on the molecular weight of linear-PEGs ( G ′ ~ M c 0.69 ) while G ′ for Case B was a strong increasing function of M c   ( G ′ ~ M c 1.2 ). However, both of them are different from the geometric blob (theoretical mesh) of the gel networks. In addition, interesting relationships between G ′ and ξ c , G ′ ~ ξ c , G ′ ~ ξ C − 2 , were obtained for Cases A and B, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges for Gel Materials in the 21st Century)
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8 pages, 2500 KiB  
Communication
Effect of Sonication Time on Magnetorheological Effect for Monomodal Magnetic Elastomers
by Mayuko Watanabe, Junko Ikeda, Yoshihiro Takeda, Mika Kawai and Tetsu Mitsumata
Gels 2018, 4(2), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020049 - 23 May 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4254
Abstract
The effect of sonication time on the storage modulus and particle morphology for magnetic elastomers was investigated by dynamic viscoelastic measurements and morphological studies. An ultrasonic wave using a homogenizer was irradiated to magnetic liquids containing 70 wt % carbonyl iron, for up [...] Read more.
The effect of sonication time on the storage modulus and particle morphology for magnetic elastomers was investigated by dynamic viscoelastic measurements and morphological studies. An ultrasonic wave using a homogenizer was irradiated to magnetic liquids containing 70 wt % carbonyl iron, for up to 30 min before cure. SEM photographs revealed that magnetic particles were randomly dispersed in the polyurethane matrix for magnetic elastomers with sonication. A parameter showing nonlinear viscoelasticity for magnetic elastomers with sonication decreased from 0.75 to 0.4, indicating that the aggregations of magnetic particles had been destroyed by the sonication. The storage modulus at 500 mT at the linear viscoelastic regime significantly increased with the irradiation time, reaching saturation after 10 min; this suggests an increase in the number of chains of magnetic particles by sonication, due to the random dispersion of magnetic particles. At high strains, the storage modulus at 500 mT increased by 8.9 kPa by sonication, indicating the number of chains of magnetic particles which were not destroyed by increased sonication. It was also found that the storage modulus for polyurethane elastomers without magnetic particles was not varied by sonication, suggesting that the polyurethane network was not broken. The effect of sonication time on the viscoelastic properties, and on the magnetorheological response for magnetic elastomers, is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Gels)
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15 pages, 3474 KiB  
Article
Ultrashort Self-Assembling Peptide Hydrogel for the Treatment of Fungal Infections
by Alyaa A. Albadr, Sophie M. Coulter, Simon L. Porter, Raghu Raj Singh Thakur and Garry Laverty
Gels 2018, 4(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020048 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5961
Abstract
The threat of antimicrobial resistance to society is compounded by a relative lack of new clinically effective licensed therapies reaching patients over the past three decades. This has been particularly problematic within antifungal drug development, leading to a rise in fungal infection rates [...] Read more.
The threat of antimicrobial resistance to society is compounded by a relative lack of new clinically effective licensed therapies reaching patients over the past three decades. This has been particularly problematic within antifungal drug development, leading to a rise in fungal infection rates and associated mortality. This paper highlights the potential of an ultrashort peptide, (naphthalene-2-ly)-acetyl-diphenylalanine-dilysine-OH (NapFFKK-OH), encompassing hydrogel-forming and antifungal properties within a single peptide motif, thus overcoming formulation (e.g., solubility, drug loading) issues associated with many currently employed highly hydrophobic antifungals. A range of fungal susceptibility (colony counts) and cell cytotoxicity (MTS cell viability, LIVE/DEAD staining® with fluorescent microscopy, haemolysis) assays were employed. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the nanofibrous architecture of our self-assembling peptide, existing as a hydrogel at concentrations of 1% w/v and above. Broad-spectrum activity was demonstrated against a range of fungi clinically relevant to infection (Aspergillus niger, Candida glabrata, Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis and Candida dubliniensis) with greater than 4 log10 CFU/mL reduction at concentrations of 0.5% w/v and above. We hypothesise antifungal activity is due to targeting of anionic components present within fungal cell membranes resulting in membrane disruption and cell lysis. NapFFKK-OH demonstrated reduced toxicity against mammalian cells (NCTC 929, ARPE-19) suggesting increased selectivity for fungal cells. However, further studies relating to safety for systemic administration is required, given the challenges toxicity has presented in the wider context of antimicrobial peptide drug development. Overall this study highlights the promise of NapFFKK-OH hydrogels, particularly as a topical formulation for the treatment of fungal infections relating to the skin and eyes, or as a hydrogel coating for the prevention of biomaterial related infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels from the Self-Assembling of Peptide-Based Compounds)
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15 pages, 516 KiB  
Review
Application of Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogels as Probiotic Delivery Systems
by Iwona Kwiecień and Michał Kwiecień
Gels 2018, 4(2), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020047 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 90 | Viewed by 10641
Abstract
Polysaccharide hydrogels have been increasingly utilized in various fields. In this review, we focus on polysaccharide-based hydrogels used as probiotic delivery systems. Probiotics are microorganisms with a positive influence on our health that live in the intestines. Unfortunately, probiotic bacteria are sensitive to [...] Read more.
Polysaccharide hydrogels have been increasingly utilized in various fields. In this review, we focus on polysaccharide-based hydrogels used as probiotic delivery systems. Probiotics are microorganisms with a positive influence on our health that live in the intestines. Unfortunately, probiotic bacteria are sensitive to certain conditions, such as the acidity of the gastric juice. Polysaccharide hydrogels can provide a physical barrier between encapsulated probiotic cells and the harmful environment enhancing the cells survival rate. Additionally, hydrogels improve survivability of probiotic bacteria not only under gastrointestinal track conditions but also during storage at various temperatures or heat treatment. The hydrogels described in this review are based on selected polysaccharides: alginate, κ-carrageenan, xanthan, pectin and chitosan. Some hydrogels are obtained from the mixture of two polysaccharides or polysaccharide and non-polysaccharide compounds. The article discusses the efficiency of probiotic delivery systems made of single polysaccharide, as well as of systems comprising more than one component. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharide Hydrogels)
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30 pages, 3743 KiB  
Review
Recent Developments in Tough Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications
by Yuan Liu, Weilue He, Zhongtian Zhang and Bruce P. Lee
Gels 2018, 4(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020046 - 22 May 2018
Cited by 89 | Viewed by 14411
Abstract
A hydrogel is a three-dimensional polymer network with high water content and has been attractive for many biomedical applications due to its excellent biocompatibility. However, classic hydrogels are mechanically weak and unsuitable for most physiological load-bearing situations. Thus, the development of tough hydrogels [...] Read more.
A hydrogel is a three-dimensional polymer network with high water content and has been attractive for many biomedical applications due to its excellent biocompatibility. However, classic hydrogels are mechanically weak and unsuitable for most physiological load-bearing situations. Thus, the development of tough hydrogels used in the biomedical field becomes critical. This work reviews various strategies to fabricate tough hydrogels with the introduction of non-covalent bonds and the construction of stretchable polymer networks and interpenetrated networks, such as the so-called double-network hydrogel. Additionally, the design of tough hydrogels for tissue adhesive, tissue engineering, and soft actuators is reviewed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tough Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications)
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9 pages, 2032 KiB  
Article
Irreversible Swelling Behavior and Reversible Hysteresis in Chemically Crosslinked Poly(vinyl alcohol) Gels
by Keiichiro Kamemaru, Shintaro Usui, Yumiko Hirashima and Atsushi Suzuki
Gels 2018, 4(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020045 - 21 May 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4195
Abstract
We report the swelling properties of chemically crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) gels with high degrees of polymerization and hydrolysis. Physical crosslinking by microcrystallites was introduced in this chemical PVA gel by a simple dehydration process. The equilibrium swelling ratio was measured in several [...] Read more.
We report the swelling properties of chemically crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) gels with high degrees of polymerization and hydrolysis. Physical crosslinking by microcrystallites was introduced in this chemical PVA gel by a simple dehydration process. The equilibrium swelling ratio was measured in several mixed solvents, which comprised two-components: a good solvent (water or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)), and a poor organic solvent for PVA. In the case of aqueous/organic solvent mixtures subjected to a multiple-sample test, the swelling ratio decreased continuously when the concentration of the organic solvent increased, reaching a collapsed state in the respective pure organic solvents. In the case of DMSO, starting from a swollen state, the swelling ratio rapidly decreased by between 15 and 50 mol % when the concentration of the organic compound increased in a single-sample test. To understand the hysteresis phenomenon, the swelling ratio was measured in a DMSO/acetone mixed solvent, starting from a collapsed state in acetone. The reversibility of swelling in response to successive concentration cycles between DMSO and acetone was examined. As a result, an irreversible swelling behavior was observed in the first cycle, and the swelling ratio in acetone after the first cycle became larger than the initial ratio. Subsequently, the swelling ratio changed reversibly, with a large hysteresis near a specific molar ratio of DMSO/acetone of 60/40. The microstructures were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy during the cycles. The irreversible swelling behavior and hysteresis are discussed in terms of the destruction and re-formation of additional physical crosslinking in the chemical PVA gels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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12 pages, 4515 KiB  
Article
Frozen State of Sephadex® Gels of Different Crosslink Density Analyzed by X-ray Computed Tomography and X-ray Diffraction
by Norio Murase, Yuki Uetake, Yuki Sato, Kentaro Irie, Yohei Ueno, Toru Hirauchi, Toshio Kawahara and Mitsuhiro Hirai
Gels 2018, 4(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020044 - 18 May 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4795
Abstract
Water in Sephadex® (crosslinked dextran) gels is known to indicate different freezing behavior which is dependent on the density of the crosslinks, and water in a Sephadex® G25 gel remains partially unfrozen during cooling and crystallizes during rewarming. The mechanism of [...] Read more.
Water in Sephadex® (crosslinked dextran) gels is known to indicate different freezing behavior which is dependent on the density of the crosslinks, and water in a Sephadex® G25 gel remains partially unfrozen during cooling and crystallizes during rewarming. The mechanism of anomalous ice crystallization during rewarming is still unclear. The objective of this study is to observe the ice grains that form in Sephadex® beads and to comprehend their frozen state with a focus on the ice crystallization during rewarming. Sephadex® beads containing 50 wt % water were prepared and used for the measurements. The observation of the ice grains was carried out by using synchrotron radiation-sourced X-ray CT (computed tomography). XRD (X-ray diffraction) analysis was also conducted to investigate the frozen state. As a result, ice grains that were larger than ~1 μm were hardly observed after the slow cooling of Sephadex® beads, except in the G25 beads. However, at the occurrence of ice crystallization during rewarming, ice grains that were larger than 10 μm appeared in the G25 beads. Using XRD, it was found that small incomplete ice crystals were formed in G25 beads and the presence of glassy water was indicated in the gel. In conclusion, the size and distribution of ice grains that formed in Sephadex® beads were different depending on the density of the crosslinks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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13 pages, 3422 KiB  
Article
Advanced Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Aerogels from Plastic Waste for Acoustic and Thermal Insulation Applications
by Hong Wei Koh, Duyen K. Le, Gek Nian Ng, Xiwen Zhang, Nhan Phan-Thien, Umeyr Kureemun and Hai M. Duong
Gels 2018, 4(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020043 - 17 May 2018
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 10620
Abstract
This work presents for the first time, a simple, practical and scalable approach to fabricating recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) aerogels for thermal and acoustic insulation applications. The rPET aerogels were successfully developed from recycled PET fibers and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and glutaraldehyde (GA) [...] Read more.
This work presents for the first time, a simple, practical and scalable approach to fabricating recycled polyethylene terephthalate (rPET) aerogels for thermal and acoustic insulation applications. The rPET aerogels were successfully developed from recycled PET fibers and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and glutaraldehyde (GA) cross-linkers using a freeze-drying process. The effects of various PET fiber concentrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 by wt.%), fiber deniers (3D, 7D and 15D) and fiber lengths (32 mm and 64 mm) on the rPET aerogel structures and multi-properties were comprehensively investigated. The developed rPET aerogels showed a highly porous network structure (98.3–99.5%), ultra-low densities (0.007–0.026 g/cm3), hydrophobicity with water contact angles of 120.7–149.8°, and high elasticity with low compressive Young’s modulus (1.16–2.87 kPa). They exhibited superior thermal insulation capability with low thermal conductivities of 0.035–0.038 W/m.K, which are highly competitive with recycled cellulose and silica-cellulose aerogels and better than mineral wool and polystyrene. The acoustic absorption results were also found to outperform a commercial acoustic foam absorber across a range of frequencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2018)
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15 pages, 10000 KiB  
Article
Antibacterial Properties of Silver Nanoparticles Embedded on Polyelectrolyte Hydrogels Based on α-Amino Acid Residues
by Mario Casolaro, Ilaria Casolaro, Jun Akimoto, Motoki Ueda, Masashi Ueki and Yoshihiro Ito
Gels 2018, 4(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020042 - 4 May 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5193
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte hydrogels bearing l-phenylalanine (PHE), l-valine (AVA), and l-histidine (Hist) residues were used as scaffolds for the formation of silver nanoparticles by reduction of Ag+ ions with NaBH4. The interaction with the metal ion allowed a prompt [...] Read more.
Polyelectrolyte hydrogels bearing l-phenylalanine (PHE), l-valine (AVA), and l-histidine (Hist) residues were used as scaffolds for the formation of silver nanoparticles by reduction of Ag+ ions with NaBH4. The interaction with the metal ion allowed a prompt collapse of the swollen hydrogel, due to the neutralization reaction of basic groups present on the polymer. The imidazole nitrogen of the hydrogel with Hist demonstrated greater complexing capacity with the Ag+ ion compared to the hydrogels with carboxyl groups. The subsequent reduction to metallic silver allowed for the restoration of the hydrogel’s degree of swelling to the starting value. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and spectroscopic analyses showed, respectively, a uniform distribution of the 15 nm spherical silver nanoparticles embedded on the hydrogel and peak optical properties around a wavelength of 400 nm due to the surface plasmonic effect. Unlike native hydrogels, the composite hydrogels containing silver nanoparticles showed good antibacterial activity as gram+/gram− bactericides, and higher antifungal activity against S. cerevisiae. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tough Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications)
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13 pages, 1134 KiB  
Article
Emergence of Wrinkles during the Curing of Coatings
by Michiko Shimokawa, Hikaru Yoshida, Takumi Komatsu, Rena Omachi and Kazue Kudo
Gels 2018, 4(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020041 - 3 May 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4629
Abstract
Wrinkles often emerge on a paint layer when a second coat of paint is applied on an already-coated substrate. Wrinkle formation occurs when the first layer absorbs organic solvent from the second layer. We set up experiments to mimic the double-coating process, focusing [...] Read more.
Wrinkles often emerge on a paint layer when a second coat of paint is applied on an already-coated substrate. Wrinkle formation occurs when the first layer absorbs organic solvent from the second layer. We set up experiments to mimic the double-coating process, focusing on the interaction between a paint layer and an organic solvent. In the experiments, we investigated the characteristic wavelengths of the wrinkles and the time of wrinkle emergence. We employed a simple model to explain the wrinkle emergence and performed numerical simulations. The linear stability analysis of the model provides a relation between the wavelengths and the characteristic timescale that agrees reasonably well with our experimental data as well as numerical results. Our results indicate that compression of the layer due to swelling and delamination are both important factors in the formation of wrinkles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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33 pages, 4558 KiB  
Review
Beyond Covalent Crosslinks: Applications of Supramolecular Gels
by Ty Christoff-Tempesta, Andrew J. Lew and Julia H. Ortony
Gels 2018, 4(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020040 - 3 May 2018
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 10843
Abstract
Traditionally, gels have been defined by their covalently cross-linked polymer networks. Supramolecular gels challenge this framework by relying on non-covalent interactions for self-organization into hierarchical structures. This class of materials offers a variety of novel and exciting potential applications. This review draws together [...] Read more.
Traditionally, gels have been defined by their covalently cross-linked polymer networks. Supramolecular gels challenge this framework by relying on non-covalent interactions for self-organization into hierarchical structures. This class of materials offers a variety of novel and exciting potential applications. This review draws together recent advances in supramolecular gels with an emphasis on their proposed uses as optoelectronic, energy, biomedical, and biological materials. Additional special topics reviewed include environmental remediation, participation in synthesis procedures, and other industrial uses. The examples presented here demonstrate unique benefits of supramolecular gels, including tunability, processability, and self-healing capability, enabling a new approach to solve engineering challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Supramolecular Gels)
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15 pages, 6051 KiB  
Article
Physical Properties of the Extracellular Matrix of Decellularized Porcine Liver
by Hiroyuki Ijima, Shintaro Nakamura, Ronald Bual, Nana Shirakigawa and Shuichi Tanoue
Gels 2018, 4(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020039 - 1 May 2018
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 7773
Abstract
The decellularization of organs has attracted attention as a new functional methodology for regenerative medicine based on tissue engineering. In previous work we developed an L-ECM (Extracellular Matrix) as a substrate-solubilized decellularized liver and demonstrated its effectiveness as a substrate for culturing and [...] Read more.
The decellularization of organs has attracted attention as a new functional methodology for regenerative medicine based on tissue engineering. In previous work we developed an L-ECM (Extracellular Matrix) as a substrate-solubilized decellularized liver and demonstrated its effectiveness as a substrate for culturing and transplantation. Importantly, the physical properties of the substrate constitute important factors that control cell behavior. In this study, we aimed to quantify the physical properties of L-ECM and L-ECM gels. L-ECM was prepared as a liver-specific matrix substrate from solubilized decellularized porcine liver. In comparison to type I collagen, L-ECM yielded a lower elasticity and exhibited an abrupt decrease in its elastic modulus at 37 °C. Its elastic modulus increased at increased temperatures, and the storage elastic modulus value never fell below the loss modulus value. An increase in the gel concentration of L-ECM resulted in a decrease in the biodegradation rate and in an increase in mechanical strength. The reported properties of L-ECM gel (10 mg/mL) were equivalent to those of collagen gel (3 mg/mL), which is commonly used in regenerative medicine and gel cultures. Based on reported findings, the physical properties of the novel functional substrate for culturing and regenerative medicine L-ECM were quantified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels in Tissue Engineering)
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11 pages, 31677 KiB  
Review
Microfluidic Spun Alginate Hydrogel Microfibers and Their Application in Tissue Engineering
by Tao Sun, Xingfu Li, Qing Shi, Huaping Wang, Qiang Huang and Toshio Fukuda
Gels 2018, 4(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020038 - 23 Apr 2018
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6955
Abstract
Tissue engineering is focusing on processing tissue micro-structures for a variety of applications in cell biology and the “bottom-up” construction of artificial tissue. Over the last decade, microfluidic devices have provided novel tools for producing alginate hydrogel microfibers with various morphologies, structures, and [...] Read more.
Tissue engineering is focusing on processing tissue micro-structures for a variety of applications in cell biology and the “bottom-up” construction of artificial tissue. Over the last decade, microfluidic devices have provided novel tools for producing alginate hydrogel microfibers with various morphologies, structures, and compositions for cell cultivation. Moreover, microfluidic spun alginate microfibers are long, thin, and flexible, and these features facilitate higher-order assemblies for fabricating macroscopic cellular structures. In this paper, we present an overview of the microfluidic spinning principle of alginate hydrogel microfibers and their application as micro-scaffolds or scaffolding elements for 3D assembly in tissue engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels in Tissue Engineering)
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9 pages, 1086 KiB  
Article
Temperature Dependence of Electrophoretic Mobility and Hydrodynamic Radius of Microgels of Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)
by Yasuyuki Maki, Kentaro Sugawara and Daisuke Nagai
Gels 2018, 4(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020037 - 20 Apr 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4650
Abstract
Electrostatic interactions in charged microgels, which are dominated by the microgel net charge, play a crucial role in colloidal stabilization and loading of small, charged molecules. In this study, the temperature dependences of electrophoretic mobility μ and hydrodynamic radius Rh were measured [...] Read more.
Electrostatic interactions in charged microgels, which are dominated by the microgel net charge, play a crucial role in colloidal stabilization and loading of small, charged molecules. In this study, the temperature dependences of electrophoretic mobility μ and hydrodynamic radius Rh were measured for a slightly ionized poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPA) microgel in a dilute suspension. A decrease in Rh was observed in the temperature range between 30 °C and 35 °C, corresponding to the lower critical solution temperature of PNIPA, and an increase in |μ| was observed in a higher temperature range between 34 °C and 37 °C. The analysis based on electrophoresis theory for spherical polyelectrolytes indicated that the net charge of the microgel decreased as the microgel was deswollen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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14 pages, 6951 KiB  
Article
Process Variable Optimization in the Manufacture of Resorcinol–Formaldehyde Gel Materials
by Martin Prostredný, Mohammed G. M. Abduljalil, Paul A. Mulheran and Ashleigh J. Fletcher
Gels 2018, 4(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020036 - 17 Apr 2018
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5574
Abstract
Influence of process parameters of resorcinol–formaldehyde xerogel manufacture on final gel structure was studied, including solids content, preparation/drying temperature, solvent exchange, and drying method. Xerogels produced using a range of solids content between 10 and 40 w/v% show improved textural [...] Read more.
Influence of process parameters of resorcinol–formaldehyde xerogel manufacture on final gel structure was studied, including solids content, preparation/drying temperature, solvent exchange, and drying method. Xerogels produced using a range of solids content between 10 and 40 w/v% show improved textural character up to 30 w/v% with a subsequent decrease thereafter. Preparation/drying temperature shows a minimal threshold temperature of 55 °C is required to obtain a viable gel structure, with minimal impact on gel properties for further thermal increase. Improving the solvent exchange method by splitting the same amount of acetone used in this phase over the period of solvent exchange, rather than in a single application, shows an increase in total pore volume and average pore diameter, suggesting less shrinkage occurs during drying when using the improved method. Finally, comparing samples dried under vacuum and at ambient pressure, there seems to be less shrinkage when using vacuum drying compared to ambient drying, but these changes are insubstantial. Therefore, of the process parameters investigated, improved solvent exchange seems the most significant, and it is recommended that, economically, gels are produced using a solids content of 20 w/v% at a minimum temperature of 55 °C, with regular solvent replenishment in the exchange step, followed by ambient drying. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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14 pages, 18296 KiB  
Review
Hybrid Physical Gels from Polymers and Self-Assembled Systems: A Novel Path for Making Functional Materials
by Jean-Michel Guenet
Gels 2018, 4(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020035 - 16 Apr 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4943
Abstract
In recent years, the synthesis of novel organic molecules that spontaneously self-assemble into a large variety of molecular architecture, particularly the formation of organogels, has yielded new opportunities in the preparation of functional materials. Here, we present an original preparation path of such [...] Read more.
In recent years, the synthesis of novel organic molecules that spontaneously self-assemble into a large variety of molecular architecture, particularly the formation of organogels, has yielded new opportunities in the preparation of functional materials. Here, we present an original preparation path of such materials through the fabrication of hybrid gels of these molecules with covalent polymers. Three types of systems are described: (i) intermingled gels where a polymer gel and an organogel pervade one another; (ii) encapsulation of self-assembled filaments in polymer fibrils, which provides a system with unusual magnetic properties; (iii) the reverse situation in which self-assembled nanotubes sheathe polymer fibrils. Two covalent polymers are considered: a neutral polymer, specifically stereoregular polystyrene (isotactic or syndiotactic), and a semi-conducting polymer, P3BT. In the latter case, semi-conducting nanowires are obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges for Gel Materials in the 21st Century)
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15 pages, 12716 KiB  
Article
Non-Steroidal Biphenyl Gelators: Correlation of Xerogel Structure with Solid-State Structure and Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy
by H. Cristina Geiger, David K. Geiger, William R. Roberts, Dominic L. Morell, Paul Huttunen, Jennifer L. Schulman, Melanie Tran and Dori Farthing
Gels 2018, 4(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020034 - 16 Apr 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4265
Abstract
Because the factors favoring the formation of well-formed single crystals are dissimilar to those conducive to gel formation, few examples of single-crystal structural characterizations of organogelators are found in the literature. A series of biphenyl methyl and ethyl diester derivatives of varying chain [...] Read more.
Because the factors favoring the formation of well-formed single crystals are dissimilar to those conducive to gel formation, few examples of single-crystal structural characterizations of organogelators are found in the literature. A series of biphenyl methyl and ethyl diester derivatives of varying chain length were synthesized and their gelation abilities explored. X-ray diffraction of single crystals of one of the gelators reveals a columnar extended structure. Based on XRD results for xerogels obtained from the reported organogelators, the members of the series are isostructural and so also adopt a columnar superstructure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used for the investigation of the morphology of the xerogels, which display either platelet-like morphologies or more typical entangled twisted ribbon-like aggregates. The gels exhibit chirality, which depends on the sol-gel transition history, as observed by induced circular dichroism (ICD) spectroscopy. Full article
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10 pages, 42133 KiB  
Article
The Relation between the Rheological Properties of Gels and the Mechanical Properties of Their Corresponding Aerogels
by Mingze Sun, Hua Sun, Yutao Wang, Miguel Sánchez-Soto and David A. Schiraldi
Gels 2018, 4(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020033 - 9 Apr 2018
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6608
Abstract
A series of low density, highly porous clay/poly(vinyl alcohol) composite aerogels, incorporating ammonium alginate, were fabricated via a convenient and eco-friendly freeze drying method. It is significant to understand rheological properties of precursor gels because they directly affect the form of aerogels and [...] Read more.
A series of low density, highly porous clay/poly(vinyl alcohol) composite aerogels, incorporating ammonium alginate, were fabricated via a convenient and eco-friendly freeze drying method. It is significant to understand rheological properties of precursor gels because they directly affect the form of aerogels and their processing behaviors. The introduction of ammonium alginate impacted the rheological properties of colloidal gels and improved the mechanical performance of the subject aerogels. The specific compositions and processing conditions applied to those colloidal gel systems brought about different aerogel morphologies, which in turn translated into the observed mechanical properties. The bridge between gel rheologies and aerogel structures are established in the present work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerogels 2018)
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5 pages, 2234 KiB  
Concept Paper
Does Drying Affect Gel Networks?
by Dave J. Adams
Gels 2018, 4(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020032 - 3 Apr 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 4978
Abstract
The properties of low molecular weight gels are determined by the underlying, self-assembled network. To access information on the network, it is common for techniques to be used that require the gel to be dried, such as transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron [...] Read more.
The properties of low molecular weight gels are determined by the underlying, self-assembled network. To access information on the network, it is common for techniques to be used that require the gel to be dried, such as transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. The implicit assumption is that this drying has no bearing on the data collected. Here, we discuss the validity of this assumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges for Gel Materials in the 21st Century)
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17 pages, 12923 KiB  
Article
Chiral Assembly Preferences and Directing Effects in Supramolecular Two-Component Organogels
by William Edwards and David K. Smith
Gels 2018, 4(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020031 - 29 Mar 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5567
Abstract
The impact of chirality on the self-assembly of supramolecular gels is of considerable importance, as molecular-scale programming can be translated into nanostructuring and ultimately affect macroscopic performance. This paper explores the effect of chirality on the assembly of two-component gels comprised of a [...] Read more.
The impact of chirality on the self-assembly of supramolecular gels is of considerable importance, as molecular-scale programming can be translated into nanostructuring and ultimately affect macroscopic performance. This paper explores the effect of chirality on the assembly of two-component gels comprised of a second-generation dendritic lysine peptide acid, containing three chiral centres, and an amine. This combination forms an acid–amine complex that assembles into nanofibres through peptide-peptide hydrogen bonds, leading to organogels. With achiral amines, a racemic mixture of l,l,l and d,d,d dendritic peptide acids surprisingly forms the best gels—more commonly, mixing enantiomers suppresses gelation. Thermodynamic studies demonstrate that depending on the amine, the greater stability of heterochiral gels can either be entropically or enthalpically driven. With amines possessing “R” chirality, the l,l,l peptide acid consistently forms more effective gels than its d,d,d analogue. Furthermore, in mixed gels, l,l,l sometimes imposes its assembly preference onto d,d,d. In summary, this paper demonstrates a rare example in which heterochiral gels are preferred, and also explores directing effects when each component in a two-component gel is chiral. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Supramolecular Gels)
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8 pages, 6674 KiB  
Article
Effect of Gamma Ray Irradiation on Friction Property of Poly(vinyl alcohol) Cast-Drying on Freeze-Thawed Hybrid Gel
by Saori Sasaki, Seiji Omata, Teruo Murakami, Naotsugu Nagasawa, Mitsumasa Taguchi and Atsushi Suzuki
Gels 2018, 4(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020030 - 29 Mar 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4786
Abstract
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a biocompatible polymer with low toxicity. It is possible to prepare physically cross-linked PVA gels having hydrogen bonds without using a cross-linking agent. The newly reported physically cross-linked PVA cast-drying (CD) on freeze-thawed (FT) hybrid gel has an excellent [...] Read more.
Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a biocompatible polymer with low toxicity. It is possible to prepare physically cross-linked PVA gels having hydrogen bonds without using a cross-linking agent. The newly reported physically cross-linked PVA cast-drying (CD) on freeze-thawed (FT) hybrid gel has an excellent friction property, which is expected to be applied as a candidate material for artificial cartilage. Gamma ray sterilization for clinical applications usually causes additional chemical cross-linking and changes physical properties of gels. In this study, CD on FT hybrid gels were irradiated using gamma rays at a different dose rate and irradiance. The results showed the optimized irradiation conditions for gamma irradiated gels to retain excellent friction characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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11 pages, 21265 KiB  
Review
Single Micrometer-Sized Gels: Unique Mechanics and Characters for Applications
by Miho Yanagisawa, Chiho Watanabe and Kei Fujiwara
Gels 2018, 4(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020029 - 28 Mar 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5560
Abstract
Microgels—small gels of submicron to micron size—are widely used in food, cosmetics and biomedical applications because of their biocompatibility and/or fast response to external environments. However, the properties of “single” microgels have not been characterized due to limitations in preparation technologies and measurement [...] Read more.
Microgels—small gels of submicron to micron size—are widely used in food, cosmetics and biomedical applications because of their biocompatibility and/or fast response to external environments. However, the properties of “single” microgels have not been characterized due to limitations in preparation technologies and measurement methods for single microgels with sizes in the multi-micrometer range. The synthesis of multiple shapes of single microgels and their characterization are important for further functionalization and application of gel-based materials. In this review, we explain the recent advancements in microgel fabrication and characterization methods for single microgels. The first topic discussed includes the self-assembly methods for single microgel fabrication using physical phenomena such as phase separation, interfacial wetting and buckling instability. The second topic deals with methods for analyzing the mechanics of single microgels and the differences between their mechanical characteristics and those of bulk gels. The recent progress in the fabrication and characterization of single microgels will bring important insights to the design and functionalization of gel-based materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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15 pages, 8774 KiB  
Article
Temperature-Responsive Hydrogel-Coated Gold Nanoshells
by Hye Hun Park, La-ongnuan Srisombat, Andrew C. Jamison, Tingting Liu, Maria D. Marquez, Hansoo Park, Sungbae Lee, Tai-Chou Lee and T. Randall Lee
Gels 2018, 4(2), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020028 - 26 Mar 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6020
Abstract
Gold nanoshells (~160 nm in diameter) were encapsulated within a shell of temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (P(NIPAM-co-AA)) using a surface-bound rationally-designed free radical initiator in water for the development of a photothermally-induced drug-delivery system. The morphologies of the [...] Read more.
Gold nanoshells (~160 nm in diameter) were encapsulated within a shell of temperature-responsive poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-acrylic acid) (P(NIPAM-co-AA)) using a surface-bound rationally-designed free radical initiator in water for the development of a photothermally-induced drug-delivery system. The morphologies of the resultant hydrogel-coated nanoshells were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), while the temperature-responsive behavior of the nanoparticles was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The diameter of the P(NIPAM-co-AA) encapsulated nanoshells decreased as the solution temperature was increased, indicating a collapse of the hydrogel layer with increasing temperatures. In addition, the optical properties of the composite nanoshells were studied by UV-visible spectroscopy. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak of the hydrogel-coated nanoshells appeared at ~800 nm, which lies within the tissue-transparent range that is important for biomedical applications. Furthermore, the periphery of the particles was conjugated with the model protein avidin to modify the hydrogel-coated nanoshells with a fluorescent-tagged biotin, biotin-4-fluorescein (biotin-4-FITC), for colorimetric imaging/monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stimuli-Responsive Gels)
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11 pages, 2989 KiB  
Article
Fiber Network Formation in Semi-Flexible Polymer Solutions: An Exploratory Computational Study
by Fernando Vargas-Lara and Jack F. Douglas
Gels 2018, 4(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020027 - 22 Mar 2018
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4248
Abstract
The formation of gels through the bundling of semi-flexible polymer chains into fiber networks is ubiquitous in diverse manufactured and natural materials, and, accordingly, we perform exploratory molecular dynamics simulations of a coarse-grained model of semi-flexible polymers in a solution with attractive lateral [...] Read more.
The formation of gels through the bundling of semi-flexible polymer chains into fiber networks is ubiquitous in diverse manufactured and natural materials, and, accordingly, we perform exploratory molecular dynamics simulations of a coarse-grained model of semi-flexible polymers in a solution with attractive lateral interchain interactions to understand essential features of this type of gel formation. After showing that our model gives rise to fibrous gels resembling real gels of this kind, we investigate how the extent of fiber bundling influences the “melting” temperature, T m , and the emergent rigidification of model bundled fibers having a fixed number of chains, N, within them. Based on our preliminary observations, we suggest the fiber size is kinetically selected by a reduced thermodynamic driving force and a slowing of the dynamics within the fibers associated with their progressive rigidification with the inclusion of an increasing number of chains in the bundle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polyelectrolyte Gels)
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13 pages, 646 KiB  
Article
Dynamics of Spinodal Decomposition in a Ternary Gelling System
by Yutaro Yamashita, Miho Yanagisawa and Masayuki Tokita
Gels 2018, 4(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels4020026 - 22 Mar 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5344
Abstract
The phase diagram and phase transitions of the ternary system of gelatin, water and poly(ethylene glycol) oligomers were studied as a function of the weight fraction of gelatin and the weight fraction and molecular weight of poly(ethylene glycol) oligomers. It was found that [...] Read more.
The phase diagram and phase transitions of the ternary system of gelatin, water and poly(ethylene glycol) oligomers were studied as a function of the weight fraction of gelatin and the weight fraction and molecular weight of poly(ethylene glycol) oligomers. It was found that both phase separation and the sol-gel transition occur in this ternary system. The relative position of the phase separation line and the sol-gel transition line depends on the weight fraction and the molecular weight of the poly(ethylene glycol) oligomer that coexists in the solution. All aspects of the phase diagram are sensitive to the molecular weight of the poly(ethylene glycol) oligomer. Since the phase separation line crosses the sol-gel transition line in the phase space that is created by the temperature and the weight fraction of gelatin, the phase space is typically divided into four regions, where each region corresponds to a definite phase. The transitions between mutual phases were studied using the light-scattering technique. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Gel Science—A Special Issue in Memory of Toyoichi Tanaka)
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