Batteries

16 pages, 4238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Characterization for AC/DC Distribution Networks Considering the Control Strategy of Photovoltaic and Energy Storage Battery

by Yubo Yuan, Juan Li, Pengpeng Lyu, Zhonghao Qian, Yunlong Jiang and Jiaming Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070259 - 22 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1091

Abstract

In order to cope with the failure of existing fault analysis schemes for AC/DC distribution networks with a high proportion of distributed generations, this paper proposes a fault characteristic analysis method for AC/DC distribution networks that considers the influence of distributed generation control [...] Read more.

In order to cope with the failure of existing fault analysis schemes for AC/DC distribution networks with a high proportion of distributed generations, this paper proposes a fault characteristic analysis method for AC/DC distribution networks that considers the influence of distributed generation control strategies. Firstly, a transient model for the AC/DC distribution network connected to distributed generations is built. Then, the fault characteristics of the AC/DC distribution network in different stages, such as the capacitor discharge stage, inductive renewal stage, and steady state stage, is analyzed. Finally, detailed simulation analysis is conducted using PSCAD/EMTDC to validate the effectiveness of the developed scheme by the superior approximation performance between simulated curves and calculated curves. Full article

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25 pages, 4877 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Internal Changes Due to Mechanical Loading

by Maria Cortada-Torbellino, David Garcia Elvira, Abdelali El Aroudi and Hugo Valderrama-Blavi

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070258 - 22 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1957

Abstract

The growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has prompted the need to enhance the technology of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in order to improve their response when subjected to external factors that can alter their performance, thereby affecting their safety and efficiency. Mechanical abuse has [...] Read more.

The growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has prompted the need to enhance the technology of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in order to improve their response when subjected to external factors that can alter their performance, thereby affecting their safety and efficiency. Mechanical abuse has been considered one of the major sources of LIB failure due to the changes it provokes in the structural integrity of cells. Therefore, this article aims to review the main factors that aggravate the effects of mechanical loading based on the results of different laboratory tests that subjected LIBs to abusive testing. The results of different cell types tested under different mechanical loadings have been gathered in order to assess the changes in LIB properties and the main mechanisms responsible for their failure and permanent damage. The main consequences of mechanical abuse are the increase in LIB degradation and the formation of events such as internal short circuits (ISCs) and thermal runways (TRs). Then, a set of standards and regulations that evaluate the LIB under mechanical abuse conditions are also reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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35 pages, 7256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Shunt Currents and Pressure Losses of a VRFB by Applying a Discrete PSO Algorithm

by Decebal Aitor Ispas-Gil, Ekaitz Zulueta, Javier Olarte, Asier Zulueta and Unai Fernandez-Gamiz

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070257 - 19 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1448

Abstract

This paper presents an extensive study on the electrochemical, shunt currents, and hydraulic modeling of a vanadium redox flow battery of m stacks and

n

cells per stack. The shunt currents model of the battery has been developed through the use of Kirchoff’s [...] Read more.

This paper presents an extensive study on the electrochemical, shunt currents, and hydraulic modeling of a vanadium redox flow battery of m stacks and

n

cells per stack. The shunt currents model of the battery has been developed through the use of Kirchoff’s laws, taking into account the different design cases that can occur and enumerating the equations of nodes and meshes specifying them so that the software implementation can be performed in a direct way. The hydraulic model has been developed by numerical methods. These models are put to work simultaneously in order to simulate the behavior of a VRFB battery during charging and discharging, obtaining the pressure losses and shunt currents that occur in the battery. Using these models, and by using a PSO-type optimization algorithm, specifically designed for discrete variables, the battery design is optimized in order to minimize the round-trip efficiency losses due to pressure losses and shunt currents. In the optimization of the battery design, value is given to the number of stacks in which the total number of cells in the battery is distributed and the dimensions of the piping relative to both the stacks and the cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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35 pages, 3047 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Role of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide in Electric Double-Layer Capacitors: A Systematic Review

by Talia Tene, Stefano Bellucci, Marco Guevara, Paul Romero, Alberto Guapi, Lala Gahramanli, Salvatore Straface, Lorenzo S. Caputi and Cristian Vacacela Gomez

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070256 - 17 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1968

Abstract

The evolution of electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) has significantly benefited from advancements in graphene-based materials, particularly graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). This systematic review consolidates and analyzes existing research on the roles of GO and rGO in enhancing the performance [...] Read more.

The evolution of electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) has significantly benefited from advancements in graphene-based materials, particularly graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). This systematic review consolidates and analyzes existing research on the roles of GO and rGO in enhancing the performance of EDLCs, focusing on synthesis methods, electrode fabrication, electrolytes, and performance metrics such as capacitance, energy density, and cycling stability. Following the PICOS and PRISMA frameworks, a comprehensive literature search was conducted across Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and IEEE Xplore, covering the period from 2010 to 2023. A total of 128 articles were initially identified, with 27 studies meeting the inclusion criteria after rigorous screening and full-text analysis. Key findings reveal that the incorporation of GO and rGO in EDLCs leads to significant improvements in specific capacitance, energy density, and cycling stability. Notable advancements include novel synthesis techniques and composite materials such as nitrogen-doped graphene, graphene/polyaniline hybrids, and various metal oxide–graphene composites, which exhibit superior electrochemical performance. However, challenges such as material scalability, environmental sustainability, and consistency in synthesis methods remain. This review stresses the great potential of GO and rGO in the development of high-performance EDLCs and highlights the need for continued research to address existing challenges and further optimize material properties and fabrication techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)

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36 pages, 3484 KiB

Open AccessReview

Environmental Aspects and Recycling of Solid-State Batteries: A Comprehensive Review

by Abniel Machín, María C. Cotto, Francisco Díaz, José Duconge, Carmen Morant and Francisco Márquez

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070255 - 17 Jul 2024

Viewed by 4408

Abstract

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, with notable advantages in safety, energy density, and longevity, yet the environmental implications of their life cycle, from manufacturing to disposal, remain a critical concern. This review examines the environmental [...] Read more.

Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries, with notable advantages in safety, energy density, and longevity, yet the environmental implications of their life cycle, from manufacturing to disposal, remain a critical concern. This review examines the environmental impacts associated with the production, use, and end-of-life management of SSBs, starting with the extraction and processing of raw materials, and highlights significant natural resource consumption, energy use, and emissions. A comparative analysis with traditional battery manufacturing underscores the environmental hazards of novel materials specific to SSBs. The review also assesses the operational environmental impact of SSBs by evaluating their energy efficiency and carbon footprint in comparison to conventional batteries, followed by an exploration of end-of-life challenges, including disposal risks, regulatory frameworks, and the shortcomings of existing waste management practices. A significant focus is placed on recycling and reuse strategies, reviewing current methodologies like mechanical, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical processes, along with emerging technologies that aim to overcome recycling barriers, while also analyzing the economic and technological challenges of these processes. Additionally, real-world case studies are presented, serving as benchmarks for best practices and highlighting lessons learned in the field. In conclusion, the paper identifies research gaps and future directions for reducing the environmental footprint of SSBs, underscoring the need for interdisciplinary collaboration to advance sustainable SSB technologies and contribute to balancing technological advancements with environmental stewardship, thereby supporting the transition to a more sustainable energy future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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13 pages, 2104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Separation of Lithium from Leachate of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries by Zirconium Phosphate/Polyacrylonitrile Composite: Leaching and Sorption Behavior

by Baffa Haruna, Zhongyan Luo, Mujtaba Aminu Muhammad, Jinfeng Tang, Jukka Kuva, Risto Koivula, Hongli Bao and Junhua Xu

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070254 - 17 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1280

Abstract

This study introduces a straightforward and effective amorphous ZrP/polyacrylonitrile composite ion exchange method for separating Li from the leachate of spent Li-ion batteries (NMC 111). The cathode materials were leached with a series of optimized experiments. The influence of operating variables, including the [...] Read more.

This study introduces a straightforward and effective amorphous ZrP/polyacrylonitrile composite ion exchange method for separating Li from the leachate of spent Li-ion batteries (NMC 111). The cathode materials were leached with a series of optimized experiments. The influence of operating variables, including the H₂SO₄ concentration, temperature, H₂O₂ concentration, and pulp density, on leaching efficiency was examined to determine the optimal conditions for sorption experiments. The leaching efficiencies of Li, Co, Ni, and Mn were found to be 99.9%, 99.5%, 98.8%, and 99.9%, respectively. Subsequently, batch sorption experiments were performed by using am-ZrP/PAN, including the determination of the effect of pH, sorption kinetics, and the sorption isotherm. The effect of pH on adsorption was examined in 1 mmol/L equimolar solutions of Li, Ni, Mn, and Co. Li was separated from Mn, Co, and Ni in the leaching liquor. The adsorbent for Mn, Co, and Ni sorption better fitted pseudo-second-order kinetics. High selectivity for Li was observed, even at the higher solution concentration of 15 mM Li, Ni, Co and Mn. In addition, the column loading process demonstrated selectivity for Li over Co, Ni, and Mn metal ions. The preliminary evaluation of the whole process with mass flow demonstrated that it would be feasible to achieve full separation and metal recovery by integrating a combined hydrometallurgical method in future studies. However, much work is still needed to develop a practical separation flowsheet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Life and Recycling: Perspectives for High-Performance Batteries)

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18 pages, 5310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing a Stable Alloy Interlayer on Li Metal Anodes for Fast Charging of All-Solid-State Li Metal Batteries

by Nicolas Delaporte, Alexis Perea, Steve Collin-Martin, Mireille Léonard, Julie Matton, Hendrix Demers, Daniel Clément, Vincent Gariépy and Wen Zhu

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070253 - 17 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1817

Abstract

The deposition of a thin Li_xSn_y alloy layer by plasma vapor deposition (PVD) on the surface of a Li foil is reported. The formation of a Li-rich alloy is confirmed by the volume expansion (up to 380%) of the layer [...] Read more.

The deposition of a thin Li_xSn_y alloy layer by plasma vapor deposition (PVD) on the surface of a Li foil is reported. The formation of a Li-rich alloy is confirmed by the volume expansion (up to 380%) of the layer and by the disappearance of metallic Sn peaks in the X-ray diffractogram. The layer has a much higher hardness than bare Li and can withstand aggressive cycling at 1C. Post-mortem scanning electron microscope observations revealed that the alloy layer remains intact even after fast cycling for hundreds of cycles. A concept of double modification by adding a thin ceramic/polymer layer deposited by a doctor blade on top of the Li_xSn_y layer was also reported to be efficient to reach long-term stability for 500 cycles at C/3. Finally, a post-treatment after Sn deposition consisting of a plasma cleaning of the Li_xSn_y alloy layer led to a strong improvement in the cycling performance at 1C. The surface is smoother and less oxidized after this treatment. The combination of a Li-rich alloy interlayer, the increase in hardness at the electrolyte/Li interface, and the absence of dissolution of the layer during cycling at high C-rates are reasons for such an improvement in electrochemical performance. Full article

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15 pages, 1532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Cost Modeling of Battery Cell Formats and Chemistries on a Large Production Scale

by Natalia Soldan Cattani, Eduardo Noronha, Jessica Schmied, Moritz Frieges, Heiner Heimes and Achim Kampker

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070252 - 16 Jul 2024

Viewed by 2055

Abstract

As lithium-ion batteries increasingly become a cornerstone of the automotive sector, the importance of efficient and cost-effective battery production has become paramount. Even though electric vehicle battery cells are produced in three different geometries—cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch—no specific model exists to compare the [...] Read more.

As lithium-ion batteries increasingly become a cornerstone of the automotive sector, the importance of efficient and cost-effective battery production has become paramount. Even though electric vehicle battery cells are produced in three different geometries—cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch—no specific model exists to compare the manufacturing costs of producing cells with different geometries but similar performances. In this paper, we present a process-based cost model with a cell design functionality which enables design and manufacturing cost prediction of user-defined battery cells. Full article

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12 pages, 3587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Battery Scheduling Optimization and Potential Revenue for Residential Storage Price Arbitrage

by Nerijus Paulauskas and Vsevolod Kapustin

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070251 - 16 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1106

Abstract

Residential energy storage systems offer significant potential for price arbitrage by capitalizing on fluctuations in electricity prices throughout the day. This study investigates the potential revenue from optimal battery scheduling for residential storage in different north-western European electricity price zones during 2023. Using [...] Read more.

Residential energy storage systems offer significant potential for price arbitrage by capitalizing on fluctuations in electricity prices throughout the day. This study investigates the potential revenue from optimal battery scheduling for residential storage in different north-western European electricity price zones during 2023. Using Nord Pool day-ahead prices, we applied an optimization model to determine the revenue for two types of batteries: 5 kW/10 kWh and 10 kW/10 kWh. The analysis considered battery capacity, charging and discharging efficiency, and maximum charge/discharge rates. Our results show notable variations in potential revenue across different regions, with the Baltic states demonstrating the highest revenue potential. The findings indicate that while 10 kW batteries can generate higher total revenue, 5 kW batteries are more efficient in terms of revenue per cycle. These regional disparities underscore the need for targeted incentives and policies to enhance the economic viability of residential energy storage. The research results provide valuable insights into optimizing residential battery storage for price arbitrage, offering guidance for consumers, policymakers, and energy providers to maximize economic benefits in various electricity markets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Advanced Battery Systems)

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16 pages, 9326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Modeling of a Low-Cobalt All-Solid-State Cell with Ceramic Electrolyte Using a Deformable Geometry

by David Nadeau, Lionel Roué and François Allard

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070250 - 16 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1190

Abstract

All-solid-state batteries with a lithium negative electrode and a ceramic electrolyte are key toward high energy density. To ensure a safe, fast, accurate, and cost-effective development of this technology, the experimental methodology must be supported by the numerical modeling approach. This work proposes [...] Read more.

All-solid-state batteries with a lithium negative electrode and a ceramic electrolyte are key toward high energy density. To ensure a safe, fast, accurate, and cost-effective development of this technology, the experimental methodology must be supported by the numerical modeling approach. This work proposes and describes an electrochemical model of a Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO) and Ni-rich NMC-based lithium cell with a deformable lithium negative electrode. Simulations were computed using the finite element method at different operating conditions to demonstrate the scope of the modeling work. Discharge rate tests, deformation tracking, geometric defect investigation, and polarization decomposition are described. Theoretical validation of the mass balance, the stripping rate, the ohmic polarization, and the mesh deformation demonstrated the consistency of the volumetric deformation strategy. We demonstrated in this study a deformable modeling strategy, which was found to be useful for the electrostripping analysis of anodic geometry defects during discharge. Non-uniformity in the lithium stripping rate was found along the anodic interface with defects, and this non-uniformity was accentuated with a higher discharge rate. The cell’s discharge potential was decomposed by considering the equilibrium potential and the polarizations of the main components of the cell. This post-processing was found to be useful for the understanding of the cell’s behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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14 pages, 1598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Reduction of Li₂CO₃ on LLZTO Solid-State Electrolyte via Scalable Open-Air Plasma Treatment

by Mohammed Sahal, Jinzhao Guo, Candace K. Chan and Nicholas Rolston

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070249 - 12 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1991

Abstract

We report on the use of an atmospheric pressure, open-air plasma treatment to remove Li₂CO₃ species from the surface of garnet-type tantalum-doped lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂, LLZTO) solid-state electrolyte [...] Read more.

We report on the use of an atmospheric pressure, open-air plasma treatment to remove Li₂CO₃ species from the surface of garnet-type tantalum-doped lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂, LLZTO) solid-state electrolyte pellets. The Li₂CO₃ layer, which we show forms on the surface of garnets within 3 min of exposure to ambient moisture and CO₂, increases the interface (surface) resistance of LLZTO. The plasma treatment is carried out entirely in ambient and is enabled by use of a custom-built metal shroud that is placed around the plasma nozzle to prevent moisture and CO₂ from reacting with the sample. After the plasma treatment, N₂ compressed gas is flowed through the shroud to cool the sample and prevent atmospheric species from reacting with the LLZTO. We demonstrate that this approach is effective for removing the Li₂CO₃ from the surface of LLZTO. The surface chemistry is characterized with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to evaluate the effect of process parameters (plasma exposure time and shroud gas chemistry) on removal of the surface species. We also show that the open-air plasma treatment can significantly reduce the interface resistance. This platform demonstrates a path towards open-air processed solid-state batteries. Full article

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24 pages, 4258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Holistic Testing and Characterization of Commercial 18650 Lithium-Ion Cells

by Nicolò Zatta, Bernardo De Cesaro, Enrico Dal Cin, Gianluca Carraro, Giovanni Cristofoli, Andrea Trovò, Andrea Lazzaretto and Massimo Guarnieri

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070248 - 11 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

Reduced-order electrothermal models play a key role in the design and control of lithium-ion cell stacks, calling for accurate model parameter calibration. This paper presents a complete electrical and thermal experimental characterization procedure for the coupled modeling of cylindrical lithium-ion cells in order [...] Read more.

Reduced-order electrothermal models play a key role in the design and control of lithium-ion cell stacks, calling for accurate model parameter calibration. This paper presents a complete electrical and thermal experimental characterization procedure for the coupled modeling of cylindrical lithium-ion cells in order to implement them in a prototype Formula SAE hybrid racing car. The main goal of the tests is to determine how the cell capacity varies with the temperature and the discharge current to predict the open-circuit voltage of the cell and its entropic component. A simple approach for the characterization of the battery equivalent electrical circuit and a two-step thermal characterization method are also shown. The investigations are carried out on four commercial 18650 NMC lithium cells. The model was shown to predict the battery voltage with an RMS error lower than 20 mV and the temperature with an RMS error equal to 0.5 °C. The authors hope that this manuscript can contribute to the development of standardized characterization techniques for such cells while offering experimental data and validated models that can be used by researchers and BMS designers in different applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling and Reuse of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Strategies)

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16 pages, 5585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EIS Ageing Prediction of Lithium-Ion Batteries Depending on Charge Rates

by Olivia Bruj and Adrian Calborean

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070247 - 11 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1395

Abstract

In the automotive industry, ageing mechanisms and diagnosis of Li-ion batteries depending on charge rate are of tremendous importance. With this in mind, we have investigated the lifetime degradation of lithium-ion battery cells at three distinct charging rates using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). [...] Read more.

In the automotive industry, ageing mechanisms and diagnosis of Li-ion batteries depending on charge rate are of tremendous importance. With this in mind, we have investigated the lifetime degradation of lithium-ion battery cells at three distinct charging rates using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). Impedance spectra of high-energy Panasonic NCR18650B batteries have been analysed in light of two distinct approaches, namely the time-dependent evaluation of the Constant Phase Element (CPE), and the single parameter investigation of resonance frequency of the circuit. SOH percentages were used to validate our approach. By monitoring the CPE-Q parameter at different charge rates of 0.5 C, 1 C, and 1.5 C, respectively, we applied a degradation speed analysis, allowing us to predict a quantitative value of the LIBs. The results are in complete agreement with the resonance frequency single parameter analysis, in which quite a similar trend was obtained after the spline fitting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-Health Estimation of Batteries)

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18 pages, 5528 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Cu₂O/CuO Nanowires by One-Step Thermal Oxidation of Flexible Copper Mesh for Supercapacitor Applications

by Mina-Ionela Morariu (Popescu), Mircea Nicolaescu, Iosif Hulka, Narcis Duţeanu, Corina Orha, Carmen Lăzău and Cornelia Bandas

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070246 - 10 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1415

Abstract

This study focuses on the growth of Cu₂O/CuO nanowires by one-step thermal oxidation using a flexible copper mesh at oxidation temperatures in the range of 300 to 600 °C in a controlled atmosphere of mixed-flow Ar and O₂ gases. Thermal [...] Read more.

This study focuses on the growth of Cu₂O/CuO nanowires by one-step thermal oxidation using a flexible copper mesh at oxidation temperatures in the range of 300 to 600 °C in a controlled atmosphere of mixed-flow Ar and O₂ gases. Thermal oxidation is one of the simplest used methods to obtain nanowires on a metal surface, offering advantages such as low production costs and the ability to produce metal oxides on a large scale without the use of hazardous chemical compounds. The growth of metal oxides on a conductive substrate, forming metal/oxide structures, has proven to be an effective method for enhancing charge-transfer efficiency. The as-synthesized Cu/Cu₂O/CuO (Nw) electrodes were structurally and morphologically characterized using techniques such as XRD and SEM/EDX analysis to investigate the structure modification and morphologies of the materials. The supercapacitor properties of the as-developed Cu/Cu₂O/CuO (Nw) electrodes were then examined using cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) measurements, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The CV curves show that the Cu/Cu₂O/CuO (Nw) structure acts as a positive electrode, and, at a scan rate of 5 mV s ⁻¹, the highest capacitance values reached 26.158 mF cm⁻² for the electrode oxidized at a temperature of 300 °C. The assessment of the flexibility of the electrodes was performed at various bending angles, including 0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, and 180°. The GCD analysis revealed a maximum specific capacitance of 21.198 mF cm⁻² at a low power density of 0.5 mA cm⁻² for the oxidation temperature of 300 °C. The cycle life assessment of the all of the as-obtained Cu/Cu₂O/CuO (Nw) electrodes over 500 cycles was performed by GCD analysis, which confirmed their electrochemical stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Energy Density Supercapacitors: Acquisition, Characterization, and Application)

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13 pages, 2017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validity of LiPON Conductivity Determined by Impedance Spectroscopy

by Alexander Rudy, Alena Novozhilova and Julia Egorova

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070245 - 9 Jul 2024

Viewed by 765

Abstract

A hypothesis that the generally accepted value of the LiPON conductivity should be attributed to the absorption and displacement currents is substantiated. The reason is a small contribution of the drift current due to field screening by the electric double layer. The basis [...] Read more.

A hypothesis that the generally accepted value of the LiPON conductivity should be attributed to the absorption and displacement currents is substantiated. The reason is a small contribution of the drift current due to field screening by the electric double layer. The basis for this assumption is the measurement of the LiPON absorption capacitance, according to which its dielectric constant is about 10⁶. An alternative equivalent circuit containing a non-ideal absorption element is proposed and its impedance is calculated. It is shown that the Bode diagrams of the alternative circuit approximate the experimental curves well. Parameters and the magnitude of electric field screening are calculated based on a proposed model of a double electric layer. Considering the screening effect, the drift conductivity of LiPON is obtained, which is in good agreement with the data on lithium concentration and ion mobility. Full article

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14 pages, 4677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Printed Pouch Film and Flexible Battery

by Gyeongseok Oh, Snigdha Paramita Mantry, Jae Ho Sim, Hyeon Woo Cho, Mijin Won, Hwamok Park, Jiyoung Park, Juhwan Lee and Dong Soo Kim

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070244 - 8 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1111

Abstract

This study investigates the properties of various adhesives and assesses the effects of the coating and drying conditions of aluminum surface treatment agents on adhesion strength and chemical resistance. The adhesion between aluminum and the polymer film is improved through the application of [...] Read more.

This study investigates the properties of various adhesives and assesses the effects of the coating and drying conditions of aluminum surface treatment agents on adhesion strength and chemical resistance. The adhesion between aluminum and the polymer film is improved through the application of a surface treatment agent to the aluminum surface. This study examines the initial adhesive strength of a manufactured pouch film with respect to the drying temperature and time and evaluates its adhesive strength in the presence of moisture. The results indicate that the residual moisture on the aluminum surface weakens the adhesive strength and significantly affects electrolyte resistance. A noticeable reduction in strength was observed after water spraying, when the drying temperature and time were relatively low during the initial strength measurement. Among the adhesives used for aluminum and CPP lamination, olefin adhesives exhibit less susceptibility to electrolyte effects and have higher adhesive strengths compared to urethane and ester adhesives. Leveraging these characteristics, flexible pouch cells were manufactured and their stability was evaluated. The results confirm that the flexible cells demonstrate excellent stability, exhibiting potential for application in wearable devices. Full article

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16 pages, 3731 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Experimental Investigation on Thermal Runaway of Lithium-Ion Batteries under Low Pressure and Low Temperature

by Di Meng, Jingwen Weng and Jian Wang

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070243 - 6 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1369

Abstract

Understanding the thermal runaway mechanism of lithium-ion batteries under low pressure and low temperature is paramount for their application and transportation in the aviation industry. This work investigated the coupling effects of ambient pressure (100 kPa, 70 kPa, 40 kPa) and ambient temperature [...] Read more.

Understanding the thermal runaway mechanism of lithium-ion batteries under low pressure and low temperature is paramount for their application and transportation in the aviation industry. This work investigated the coupling effects of ambient pressure (100 kPa, 70 kPa, 40 kPa) and ambient temperature (−15 °C, 0 °C, 25 °C) on thermal behaviors in an altitude temperature chamber. The experimental results indicate that lowering ambient pressure and temperature could attenuate the thermal runaway intensity, which is mainly attributable to the reduction in oxygen concentration and the increase in heat loss. Such a dual effect leads to the maximum temperature decreasing from 811.9 °C to 667.5 °C, and the maximum temperature rate declines up to 2.6 times. Correspondingly, the whole thermal runaway process is deferred, the total time increases from 370 s to 503 s, and the time interval, Δt, from safety venting gains by 32.3% as the ambient pressure and temperature decrease. This work delivers an in-depth understanding of the thermal characteristics under low pressure and low temperature and provides meritorious guidance for the safety of cell transportation in aviation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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14 pages, 2095 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Twin-Enhanced Control for Fuel Cell and Lithium-Ion Battery Hybrid Vehicles

by Xu Kang, Yujie Wang, Cong Jiang and Zonghai Chen

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070242 - 5 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1173

Abstract

With the development of lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells, the application of hybrid power systems is becoming more and more widespread. To better optimize the energy management problem of fuel cell hybrid systems, the accuracy of system modeling and simulation is very important. [...] Read more.

With the development of lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells, the application of hybrid power systems is becoming more and more widespread. To better optimize the energy management problem of fuel cell hybrid systems, the accuracy of system modeling and simulation is very important. The hybrid system is formed by connecting the battery to the fuel cell through an active topology. Digital twin technology is applicable to the mapping of physical entities to each other with high interactivity and fast optimization iterations. In this paper, a relevant model based on mathematical logic is established by collecting actual operational data; subsequently, the accuracy of the model is verified by combining relevant operating conditions and simulating the model. Subsequently, a three-dimensional visualization model of a hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle and its operating environment was established using digital twin technology to improve the model simulation of the fuel cell hybrid power system. At low speeds, the simulation results of the hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle have a small error compared with the actual running state, and the accuracy of the data related to each internal subcomponent is high. In the simple interaction between the model display vehicle and the environment, the communication state can meet the basic requirements of the digital twin model because the amount of data to be transferred is small. This study makes a preliminary attempt at digital parallelism by combining mathematical logic with visualization models and can be used as a basis for the subsequent development of more mature digital twin models. Full article

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13 pages, 18089 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Thermal Runaway Characteristics of Large-Format Li(Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1)O₂ Battery under Different Heating Powers and Areas

by Jingru Huang, Zhuwei Fan, Chengshan Xu, Fachao Jiang and Xuning Feng

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070241 - 4 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1234

Abstract

This study experimentally investigates the effects of different heating powers and areas on the jet behavior and thermal runaway (TR) of 75 Ah LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ pouch lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in an open environment. TR, a critical safety [...] Read more.

This study experimentally investigates the effects of different heating powers and areas on the jet behavior and thermal runaway (TR) of 75 Ah LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ pouch lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in an open environment. TR, a critical safety concern for LIBs, can occur under overheating conditions. The TR behavior of LIBs was characterized by flame behavior, temperature characteristics, mass variation, jet dynamics, and residue formations. The results reveal that the heating power density primarily influences the time to initiate TR. Lower power densities extend the heating time and require higher energy to induce TR, thereby exerting a more considerable impact on the battery. The heating area predominantly affects the input energy and the extent of damage. Larger areas lead to more stable jet flames, consistent peak temperatures ranging between 1000 °C and 1300 °C, and mass loss ratios ranging from 44% to 53% compared to 43% to 47% for small-area heaters. These findings provide references for the safety design of battery assemblies and the prevention of TR propagation, contributing to the safer monitoring of LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Thermal Performance and Management: Advances and Challenges)

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34 pages, 4331 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sustainability Development of Stationary Batteries: A Circular Economy Approach for Vanadium Flow Batteries

by Nick Blume, Thomas Turek and Christine Minke

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070240 - 3 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1088

Abstract

In the literature, the hierarchy of value retention strategies (R-strategies) is utilized to describe the impacts on various circular economy (CE) factors. However, this approach is not suitable for batteries, such as the vanadium flow battery (VFB), due to its technical complexity. The [...] Read more.

In the literature, the hierarchy of value retention strategies (R-strategies) is utilized to describe the impacts on various circular economy (CE) factors. However, this approach is not suitable for batteries, such as the vanadium flow battery (VFB), due to its technical complexity. The presented model primarily focuses on VFBs, as a deep technical understanding is identified as a fundamental prerequisite for a comprehensive CE analysis. Based on the R-strategies, a new model called the dynamic multi-dimensional value retention strategy model (DDS) is developed accordingly. The DDS divides the R-strategies into three dimensions, as changes in the studied object each have a unilateral influence on the underlying dimensions. In addition, interactions among the R-strategies within the dimensions are observed. Moreover, the model enables the transparent and comprehensible examination of various CE objective factors. Through the model, future adjustments to CE for batteries can be analyzed and quantified. In particular, the analysis yields new insights into individual end-of-life (EoL) strategies, based on new findings regarding the VFB. Consequently, important new perspectives on the VFB are also illuminated. The DDS model is applicable to other complex technologies as well as simple product systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

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21 pages, 5186 KiB

Open AccessReview

Active Methods for the Equalization of a Serially Connected Lithium-Ion Battery Pack: A Review

by Longsheng Yuan, Tuo Ji and Lijun Zhang

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070239 - 3 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1189

Abstract

Traditional fuel vehicles are currently still the main means of transportation when people travel. It brings convenience to their travels, but it also causes energy shortages and environmental pollution. With the development of science and technology and the popularization of green environmental protection, [...] Read more.

Traditional fuel vehicles are currently still the main means of transportation when people travel. It brings convenience to their travels, but it also causes energy shortages and environmental pollution. With the development of science and technology and the popularization of green environmental protection, electric vehicles have gradually entered people’s lives, greatly alleviating these problems. As a power supply device for electric vehicles, the performance of batteries directly affects various indicators of vehicles. Due to their long lifespan and high energy density, lithium-ion batteries are now the preferred source of power for electric vehicles. However, due to various factors in the manufacturing and operation of lithium-ion batteries, there are often differences among individual cells. The power balance and performance of a battery pack are closely related. Thus, battery equalization is an important standard for a battery management system to work normally, and it is also one of the various battery management application problems. This paper reviews battery equalization systems and various active equalization circuits and summarizes the working principle and research progress of each active equalization circuit. Then, various active equalization circuits are analyzed and compared, and dynamic equalization for a second-life battery is introduced to enrich this review of equalization technology. Finally, the above contents are summarized and prospected. In order to obtain the best outcomes, different equalization circuits need to be chosen for various situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Service Safety, Reliability, and Uncertainty Assessment of Lithium-Ion Battery)

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16 pages, 7267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diffusion-Equation-Based Electrical Modeling for High-Power Lithium Titanium Oxide Batteries

by Haoze Chen, Weige Zhang, Caiping Zhang, Bingxiang Sun, Sijia Yang and Dinghong Chen

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070238 - 3 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1345

Abstract

Lithium titanium oxide (LTO) batteries offer superior performance compared to graphite-based anodes in terms of rapid charge/discharge capability and chemical stability, making them promising candidates for fast-charging and power-assist vehicle applications. However, commonly used battery models often struggle to accurately describe the current–voltage [...] Read more.

Lithium titanium oxide (LTO) batteries offer superior performance compared to graphite-based anodes in terms of rapid charge/discharge capability and chemical stability, making them promising candidates for fast-charging and power-assist vehicle applications. However, commonly used battery models often struggle to accurately describe the current–voltage characteristics of LTO batteries, particularly before the charge/discharge cutoff conditions. In this work, a novel electrical model based on the solid-phase diffusion equation is proposed to capture the unique electrochemical phenomena arising from the diffusion mismatch between the positive and negative electrodes in high-power LTO batteries. The robustness of the proposed model is evaluated under various loading conditions, including constant current and dynamic current tests, and the results are compared against experimental data. The experimental results for LTO batteries exhibit remarkable alignment with the model estimation, demonstrating a maximum voltage error below 3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Reliability and Health Management of Lithium-Ion Batteries—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 4550 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Edible Gelatin and Cosmetic Activated Carbon Powder as Biodegradable and Replaceable Materials in the Production of Supercapacitors

by Rodica-Cristina Negroiu, Cristina-Ioana Marghescu, Irina-Bristena Bacis, Madalina-Irina Burcea, Andrei Drumea, Laurentiu Dinca and Ion Razvan Radulescu

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070237 - 1 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1219

Abstract

Environmental pollution is currently one of the most worrying factors that endangers human health. Therefore, attempts are being made to reduce it by various means. One of the most important sources of pollution in terms of the current RoHS and REACH directives is [...] Read more.

Environmental pollution is currently one of the most worrying factors that endangers human health. Therefore, attempts are being made to reduce it by various means. One of the most important sources of pollution in terms of the current RoHS and REACH directives is the pollution caused by the use of chemical products for the production of sources for the storage and generation of electricity. The aim of this article is therefore to develop supercapacitors made of biodegradable materials and to investigate their electrical performance. Among the materials used to make these electrodes, activated carbon was identified as the main material and different combinations of gelatin, calligraphy ink and glycerol were used as the binders. The electrolyte consists of a hydrogel based on gelatin, NaCl 20 wt% solution and glycerol. In the context of this research, the electrolyte, which has the consistency of a gel, fulfills the dual function of the separator in the structure of the manufactured cells. Due to its structure, the electrolyte has good mechanical properties and can easily block the contact between the two electrodes. Most of the materials used for the production of supercapacitor cells are interchangeable materials, which are mainly used in other application fields such as the food or cosmetics industries, but were also successfully used for the investigations carried out in this research. Thus, remarkable results were recorded regarding a specific capacitance between 101.46 F/g and 233.26 F/g and an energy density between 3.52 Wh/kg and 8.09 Wh/kg, with a slightly lower power density between 66.66 W/kg and 85.76 W/kg for the manufactured supercapacitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Batteries)

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20 pages, 17799 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Use Vape Batteries: Investigating Their Potential as Ignition Sources in Waste and Recycling Streams

by Andrew Gausden and Burak Can Cerik

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070236 - 1 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1799

Abstract

This study investigates the potential link between the increasing prevalence of single-use vapes (SUVs) and the rising frequency of waste and recycling fires in the UK. Incorrectly discarded Li-ion cells from SUVs can suffer mechanical damage, potentially leading to thermal runaway (TR) depending [...] Read more.

This study investigates the potential link between the increasing prevalence of single-use vapes (SUVs) and the rising frequency of waste and recycling fires in the UK. Incorrectly discarded Li-ion cells from SUVs can suffer mechanical damage, potentially leading to thermal runaway (TR) depending on the cells’ state of charge (SOC). Industry-standard abuse tests (short-circuit and nail test) and novel impact and crush tests, simulating damage during waste management processes, were conducted on Li-ion cells from two market-leading SUVs. The novel tests created internal short circuits, generating higher temperatures than the short-circuit test required for product safety. The cells in used SUVs had an average SOC ≤ 50% and reached a maximum temperature of 131 °C, below the minimum ignition temperature of common waste materials. The high temperatures were short-lived and had limited heat transfer to adjacent materials. The study concludes that Li-ion cells in used SUVs at ≤50% SOC cannot generate sufficient heat and temperature to ignite common waste and recycling materials. These findings have implications for understanding the fire risk associated with discarded SUVs in waste management facilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)

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20 pages, 9102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Preventive Effect of Au/CeO₂ on Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway Caused by Overcharging

by Tian Zhou, Jie Sun, Jigang Li, Shouping Wei, Fan Zhang and Jing Chen

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070235 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 934

Abstract

In this study, a flower-like Au/CeO₂ supported catalyst composite anode was prepared to explore its impact on thermal runaway triggered by overcharging and flame. Through structural and performance characterization, it was found that the catalyst has a high specific surface area and [...] Read more.

In this study, a flower-like Au/CeO₂ supported catalyst composite anode was prepared to explore its impact on thermal runaway triggered by overcharging and flame. Through structural and performance characterization, it was found that the catalyst has a high specific surface area and good CO catalytic oxidation capability, with a CO removal rate higher than 99.97% at room temperature. Through electrical performance testing, it was discovered that, compared to batteries without the catalyst, batteries using the composite anode did not exhibit significant capacity degradation. In overcharge testing, the catalyst prolonged the voltage rise time and peak voltage occurrence time of the battery. In thermal runaway testing, the addition of the catalyst delayed the detection time of CO and significantly reduced the concentration of thermal runaway products, especially the peak concentration and integrated concentration of CO, demonstrating its effectiveness in reducing thermal runaway products. Therefore, this study provides a new approach for improving the safety of lithium-ion batteries. The catalyst exhibits good performance in reducing toxic gases generated after thermal runaway and delaying the occurrence of thermal runaway, providing strong support for the safe application of lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)

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21 pages, 4792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation Procedure for the Degradation of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack

by Natascia Andrenacci, Manlio Pasquali, Francesco Vellucci and Alberto Venanzoni

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070234 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1022

Abstract

This paper proposes a test procedure for evaluating the degradation of cells in a battery pack. The test can be performed using only the charger’s converters and the battery management system (BMS) without requiring sophisticated instrumentation. The method circumvents the difficulties related to [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a test procedure for evaluating the degradation of cells in a battery pack. The test can be performed using only the charger’s converters and the battery management system (BMS) without requiring sophisticated instrumentation. The method circumvents the difficulties related to the evaluation of derivative quantities for estimating the state of health (SOH) using integral quantities in the evaluation. The method introduces a ‘degradation function’ that is calculated with respect to the reference performance of pristine cells. The procedure was applied to the JuiceRoll Race Edition system, an innovative electric vehicle (EV) DC charger with internal storage, made in ENEL X and used during the MotoE championship races. Using this procedure, the degradation of performance in individual groups of cells composing the battery pack was quantified in comparison to the reference group. The procedure helps identify modules that have aged too early or show reliability issues. The method is mature for field operational applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System)

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20 pages, 11800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Practical Methodology for Real-Time Adjustment of Kalman Filter Process Noise for Lithium Battery State-of-Charge Estimation

by Cynthia Thamires da Silva, Bruno Martin de Alcântara Dias, Rui Esteves Araújo, Eduardo Lorenzetti Pellini and Armando Antônio Maria Laganá

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070233 - 28 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1159

Abstract

The methodology presented in this work allows for the creation of a real-time adjustment of Kalman Filter process noise for lithium battery state-of-charge estimation. This work innovates by creating a methodology for adjusting the process (

Q

) and measurement (

R

) [...] Read more.

The methodology presented in this work allows for the creation of a real-time adjustment of Kalman Filter process noise for lithium battery state-of-charge estimation. This work innovates by creating a methodology for adjusting the process (

Q

) and measurement (

R

) Kalman Filter noise matrices in real-time. The filter algorithm with this adaptative mechanism achieved an average accuracy of 99.56% in real tests by comparing the estimated battery voltage and measured battery voltage. A cell-balancing strategy was also implemented, capable of guaranteeing the safety and efficiency of the battery pack in all conducted tests. This work presents all the methods, equations, and simulations necessary for the development of a battery management system and applies the system in a practical, real environment. The battery management system hardware and firmware were developed, evaluated, and validated on a battery pack with eight LiFePO₄ cells, achieving excellent performance on all conducted tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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14 pages, 4124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Suppression Effect of Water Mist Released at Different Stages on Lithium-Ion Battery Flame Temperature, Heat Release, and Heat Radiation

by Bin Miao, Jiangfeng Lv, Qingbiao Wang, Guanzhang Zhu, Changfang Guo, Guodong An and Jianchun Ou

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070232 - 28 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1158

Abstract

Thermal runaway (TR) is a serious thermal disaster that occurs in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) under extreme conditions and has long been an obstacle to their further development. Water mist (WM) is considered to have excellent cooling capacity and is widely used in the [...] Read more.

Thermal runaway (TR) is a serious thermal disaster that occurs in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) under extreme conditions and has long been an obstacle to their further development. Water mist (WM) is considered to have excellent cooling capacity and is widely used in the field of fire protection. When used in TR suppression, WM also exhibits strong fire-extinguishing and anti-re-ignition abilities. Therefore, it has received widespread attention and research interest among scholars. However, most studies have focused on the cooling rate and suppression effect of TR propagation, and few have mentioned the effect of WM on flame heat transfer, which is a significant index in TR propagation suppression. This study has explored the suppression effect of WM released at different TR stages and has analyzed flame temperature, heat release, and heat radiation under WM conditions. Results show that the flame extinguishing duration for WM under different TR stages was different. WM could directly put out the flame within several seconds of being released when SV opened, 3 min after SV opening and when TR ended, and 3 min for WM when TR was triggered. Moreover, the heat radiation of the flame in relation to the battery Q_E could be calculated, and the case of WM released 3 min after SV opening exhibited the greatest proportion of heat radiation cooling η (with a value of 88.4%), which was same for the specific cooling capacity of WM Q_m with a value of 1.7 × 10⁻³ kJ/kg. This is expected to provide a novel focus for TR suppression in LIBs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Safety of Lithium Ion Batteries)

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17 pages, 15020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stress Analysis of Electrochemical and Force-Coupling Model for Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Wei Shi, Ruofan Xu, Changjiang Han, Bingxiang Sun, Jin Chai, Jiachang Liu, Xuewen Jiao, Jiale Xiong and Yinghao Li

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070231 - 27 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1582

Abstract

The mechanical pressure that arises from the external structure of the automotive lithium battery module and its fixed devices can give rise to the concentration and damage of the internal stress inside the battery and increase the risks of battery degradation and failure. [...] Read more.

The mechanical pressure that arises from the external structure of the automotive lithium battery module and its fixed devices can give rise to the concentration and damage of the internal stress inside the battery and increase the risks of battery degradation and failure. Commercial batteries cannot be disassembled, and the diffusion stress distribution at different times during discharge is notoriously difficult to determine. This paper, therefore, establishes the electrochemical force-coupling model based on the electrochemical and diffusion mechanics principles of batteries and studies the internal stress distribution of the battery under the diffusion stress of the electrode-material level and external pressure. Mainly driven by the electrochemical potential of the electrode particle diffusion stress stemming from the lithium-concentration difference inside and outside the particles, rupture is more likely to occur at the surface of the negative-electrode active particle at the end of discharge or the beginning of charging, as shown in simulation analysis. The variation in the volume of electrode material also leads to different stress and strain inside different areas, with the order of strain and stress being negative active material > negative collector fluid > positive active material > positive fluid. Therefore, huge stress and deformation will first cause the negative active particles to deviate from the fluid gradually and squeeze the diaphragm, resulting in mechanical failure accordingly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)

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11 pages, 3974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ni₃S₂@NiMo-LDH Composite for Flexible Hybrid Capacitors

by Qi He and Xiang Wu

Batteries 2024, 10(7), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10070230 - 26 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1557

Abstract

Ni₃S₂ is a kind of transition metal sulfide (TMD) with excellent electrical conductivity and electrochemical activity. To further enhance the specific capacity of Ni₃S₂-based supercapacitors, we synthesize several nanosheet-decorated Ni₃S₂@NiMo-LDH nanostructures by [...] Read more.

Ni₃S₂ is a kind of transition metal sulfide (TMD) with excellent electrical conductivity and electrochemical activity. To further enhance the specific capacity of Ni₃S₂-based supercapacitors, we synthesize several nanosheet-decorated Ni₃S₂@NiMo-LDH nanostructures by a combination of hydrothermal and electrodeposition processes. The mesoporous structure provides a large number of electroactive sites, which shortens the charge transfer distance and increases the specific surface area of electrode materials. The assembled asymmetric supercapacitor shows an energy density of 62.8 W h kg⁻¹ at 2701.6 W kg⁻¹ and long-term cycling stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)

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