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18 pages, 2051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Venus Life Finder Habitability Mission: Motivation, Science Objectives, and Instrumentation

by Sara Seager, Janusz J. Petkowski, Christopher E. Carr, Sarag J. Saikia, Rachana Agrawal, Weston P. Buchanan, David H. Grinspoon, Monika U. Weber, Pete Klupar, Simon P. Worden, Iaroslav Iakubivskyi, Mihkel Pajusalu, Laila Kaasik and on behalf of the Venus Life Finder Mission Team

Aerospace 2022, 9(11), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9110733 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3195

Abstract

For over half a century, scientists have contemplated the potential existence of life within the clouds of Venus. Unknown chemistry leaves open the possibility that certain regions of the Venusian atmosphere are habitable. In situ atmospheric measurements with a suite of modern instruments [...] Read more.

For over half a century, scientists have contemplated the potential existence of life within the clouds of Venus. Unknown chemistry leaves open the possibility that certain regions of the Venusian atmosphere are habitable. In situ atmospheric measurements with a suite of modern instruments can determine whether the cloud decks possess the characteristics needed to support life as we know it. The key habitability factors are cloud particle droplet acidity and cloud-layer water content. We envision an instrument suite to measure not only the acidity and water content of the droplets (and their variability) but additionally to confirm the presence of metals and other non-volatile elements required for life’s metabolism, verify the existence of organic material, and search for biosignature gases as signs of life. We present an astrobiology-focused mission, science goals, and instruments that can be used on both a large atmospheric probe with a parachute lasting about one hour in the cloud layers (40 to 60 km) or a fixed-altitude balloon operating at about 52 km above the surface. The latter relies on four deployable mini probes to measure habitability conditions in the lower cloud region. The mission doubles as a preparation for sample return by determining whether a subset of cloud particles is non-liquid as well as characterizing the heterogeneity of the cloud particles, thereby informing sample collection and storage methods for a return journey to Earth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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13 pages, 3120 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Direct In-Situ Capture, Separation and Visualization of Biological Particles with Fluid-Screen in the Context of Venus Life Finder Mission Concept Study

by Robert E. Weber, Janusz J. Petkowski and Monika U. Weber

Aerospace 2022, 9(11), 692; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9110692 - 6 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

Evidence of chemical disequilibria and other anomalous observations in the Venusian atmosphere motivate the search for life within the planet’s temperate clouds. To find signs of a Venusian aerial biosphere, a dedicated astrobiological space mission is required. Venus Life Finder (VLF) missions encompass [...] Read more.

Evidence of chemical disequilibria and other anomalous observations in the Venusian atmosphere motivate the search for life within the planet’s temperate clouds. To find signs of a Venusian aerial biosphere, a dedicated astrobiological space mission is required. Venus Life Finder (VLF) missions encompass unique mission concepts with specialized instruments to search for habitability indicators, biosignatures and even life itself. A key in the search for life is direct capture, concentration and visualization of particles of biological potential. Here, we present a short overview of Fluid-Screen (FS) technology, a recent advancement in the dielectrophoretic (DEP) microbial particle capture, concentration and separation. Fluid-Screen is capable of capturing and separating biochemically diverse particles, including multicellular molds, eukaryotic cells, different species of bacteria and even viruses, based on particle dielectric properties. In this short communication, we discuss the possible implementation of Fluid-Screen in the context of the Venus Life Finder (VLF) missions, emphasizing the unique science output of the Fluid-Screen instrument. FS can be coupled with other highly sophisticated instruments such as an autofluorescence microscope or a laser desorption mass spectrometer (LDMS). We discuss possible configurations of Fluid-Screen that upon modification and testing, could be adapted for Venus. We discuss the unique science output of the Fluid-Screen technology that can capture biological particles in their native state and hold them in the focal plane of the microscope for the direct imaging of the captured material. We discuss the challenges for the proposed method posed by the concentrated sulfuric acid environment of Venus’ clouds. While Venus’ clouds are a particularly challenging environment, other bodies of the solar system, e.g., with liquid water present, might be especially suitable for Fluid-Screen application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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24 pages, 14890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

LOVE-Bug Deployment Demonstrator

by Shaun Whitehead

Aerospace 2022, 9(10), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9100573 - 1 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1759

Abstract

Life on Venus Expedition (LOVE) Bugs are a proposed family of miniature, featherlight probes for exploring and sensing the Venusian atmosphere. The Bugs carry tiny ThumbSat femtosatellite buses and instruments beneath balloons or flexible parawings. They are designed to descend from 68 to [...] Read more.

Life on Venus Expedition (LOVE) Bugs are a proposed family of miniature, featherlight probes for exploring and sensing the Venusian atmosphere. The Bugs carry tiny ThumbSat femtosatellite buses and instruments beneath balloons or flexible parawings. They are designed to descend from 68 to 45 km altitude over several hours because this part of the atmosphere appears to be most welcoming to life as we know it, according to the Venus Life Finder Mission Study. The parawing option is the subject of this work. In order to fit in with larger probe missions, the LOVE-Bug concept is opportunistic. One anticipated opportunity is to be ejected when a “mother probe” needs to deploy a drogue chute for stabilisation through the transonic regime. This work developed an analogy for such a dramatic Venusian ejection by dropping from a high-altitude balloon in Earth’s stratosphere. By packaging the payload in a small-diameter low-drag capsule and dropping from 28 km, the vehicle accelerates to supersonic velocity at around 18 km, where the wing is ejected and deployed. A variant of the NASA ParaWing was created by incorporating a drag tail to help to stabilise the wing at extremely high and low velocities. Design, simulation, building, and testing work was carried out, and two flights were flown. The second flight demonstrated successful deployment of the wing in representative Venusian entry conditions. Both flights demonstrated that the ThumbSat performed as required in “space”-type conditions. Recommendations for future work, to qualify the LOVE-Bugs for operation on Venus, are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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14 pages, 51437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensor for Determining Single Droplet Acidities in the Venusian Atmosphere

by Laila Kaasik, Ida Rahu, Ellen Marigold Roper, Riika Seeba, Agnes Rohtsalu and Mihkel Pajusalu

Aerospace 2022, 9(10), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9100560 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2370

Abstract

The cloud layers of Venus are known to have pressures and temperatures comparable to those on Earth, but, at the same time, many details about the environment inside them are unknown. The early consensus was that Venusian clouds are composed of droplets of [...] Read more.

The cloud layers of Venus are known to have pressures and temperatures comparable to those on Earth, but, at the same time, many details about the environment inside them are unknown. The early consensus was that Venusian clouds are composed of droplets of near concentrated sulfuric acid with very limited water availability; newer models, however, suggest a pH range between −1 and 1, and these imply some form of a neutralizing agent and potentially complex chemical cycles. It is also possible that different populations of cloud particles have different acidities. To answer these questions, we propose an in situ acidity sensor that can statistically determine the acidities of individual cloud droplets from concentrated sulfuric acid (18 M) to deionized water, based on the fluorescence of a pigment that is immobilized in a film and read out using a set of excited LEDs and a camera. Here, we present the preliminary research and prototyping results and suggest a possible design for this sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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12 pages, 3503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deducing the Composition of Venus Cloud Particles with the Autofluorescence Nephelometer (AFN)

by Darrel Baumgardner, Ted Fisher, Roy Newton, Chris Roden, Pat Zmarzly, Sara Seager, Janusz J. Petkowski, Christopher E. Carr, Jan Špaček, Steven A. Benner, Margaret A. Tolbert, Kevin Jansen, David H. Grinspoon and Christophe Mandy

Aerospace 2022, 9(9), 492; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9090492 - 2 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4336

Abstract

The composition, sizes and shapes of particles in the clouds of Venus have previously been studied with a variety of in situ and remote sensor measurements. A number of major questions remain unresolved, however, motivating the development of an exploratory mission that will [...] Read more.

The composition, sizes and shapes of particles in the clouds of Venus have previously been studied with a variety of in situ and remote sensor measurements. A number of major questions remain unresolved, however, motivating the development of an exploratory mission that will drop a small probe, instrumented with a single-particle autofluorescence nephelometer (AFN), into Venus’s atmosphere. The AFN is specifically designed to address uncertainties associated with the asphericity and complex refractive indices of cloud particles. The AFN projects a collimated, focused, linearly polarized, 440 nm wavelength laser beam through a window of the capsule into the airstream and measures the polarized components of some of the light that is scattered by individual particles that pass through the laser beam. The AFN also measures fluorescence from those particles that contain material that fluoresce when excited at a wavelength of 440 nm and emit at 470–520 nm. Fluorescence is expected from some organic molecules if present in the particles. AFN measurements during probe passage through the Venus clouds are intended to provide constraints on particle number concentration, size, shape, and composition. Hypothesized organics, if present in Venus aerosols, may be detected by the AFN as a precursor to precise identification via future missions. The AFN has been chosen as the primary science instrument for the upcoming Rocket Lab mission to Venus, to search for organic molecules in the cloud particles and constrain the particle composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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17 pages, 9827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leading-Edge Vortex Lift (LEVL) Sample Probe for Venusian Atmosphere

by Christopher Isaac and Nick Jones

Aerospace 2022, 9(9), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9090471 - 23 Aug 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1909

Abstract

Can a small, lightweight, free-falling sample probe be slowed enough in the Venusian atmosphere to run a 10 min microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) ion gas micro spectrometer, without adding a propulsion systems or explosives and parachutes to the probe mass? To meet this requirement [...] Read more.

Can a small, lightweight, free-falling sample probe be slowed enough in the Venusian atmosphere to run a 10 min microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) ion gas micro spectrometer, without adding a propulsion systems or explosives and parachutes to the probe mass? To meet this requirement a leading-edge vortex lift (LEVL) autorotating probe design (i.e., maple or sycamore seed shape) has been proposed and evaluated. It has been found that a probe with a total mass of less than 1 kg would allow prolonged flight longer than 15 min. Mathematical modelling and physical scale model testing has been performed to show that this flight time is achievable, allowing MEMS ion gas micro-spectrometer sampling of the Venusian atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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7 pages, 6184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rocket Lab Mission to Venus

by Richard French, Christophe Mandy, Richard Hunter, Ehson Mosleh, Doug Sinclair, Peter Beck, Sara Seager, Janusz J. Petkowski, Christopher E. Carr, David H. Grinspoon, Darrel Baumgardner and on behalf of the Rocket Lab Venus Team

Aerospace 2022, 9(8), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9080445 - 13 Aug 2022

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 37880

Abstract

Regular, low-cost Decadal-class science missions to planetary destinations will be enabled by high-ΔV small spacecraft, such as the high-energy Photon, and small launch vehicles, such as Electron, to support expanding opportunities for scientists and to increase the rate of science return. The Rocket [...] Read more.

Regular, low-cost Decadal-class science missions to planetary destinations will be enabled by high-ΔV small spacecraft, such as the high-energy Photon, and small launch vehicles, such as Electron, to support expanding opportunities for scientists and to increase the rate of science return. The Rocket Lab mission to Venus is a small direct entry probe planned for baseline launch in May 2023 with accommodation for a single ~1 kg instrument. A backup launch window is available in January 2025. The probe mission will spend about 5 min in the Venus cloud layers at 48–60 km altitude above the surface and collect in situ measurements. We have chosen a low-mass, low-cost autofluorescing nephelometer to search for organic molecules in the cloud particles and constrain the particle composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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9 pages, 1251 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Venus Life Finder Missions Motivation and Summary

by Sara Seager, Janusz J. Petkowski, Christopher E. Carr, David H. Grinspoon, Bethany L. Ehlmann, Sarag J. Saikia, Rachana Agrawal, Weston P. Buchanan, Monika U. Weber, Richard French, Pete Klupar, Simon P. Worden, Darrel Baumgardner and on behalf of the Venus Life Finder Mission Team

Aerospace 2022, 9(7), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070385 - 18 Jul 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 11408

Abstract

Finding evidence of extraterrestrial life would be one of the most profound scientific discoveries ever made, advancing humanity into a new epoch of cosmic awareness. The Venus Life Finder (VLF) missions feature a series of three direct atmospheric probes designed to assess the [...] Read more.

Finding evidence of extraterrestrial life would be one of the most profound scientific discoveries ever made, advancing humanity into a new epoch of cosmic awareness. The Venus Life Finder (VLF) missions feature a series of three direct atmospheric probes designed to assess the habitability of the Venusian clouds and search for signs of life and life itself. The VLF missions are an astrobiology-focused set of missions, and the first two out of three can be launched quickly and at a relatively low cost. The mission concepts come out of an 18-month study by an MIT-led worldwide consortium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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14 pages, 19392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerial Platform Design Options for a Life-Finding Mission at Venus

by Weston P. Buchanan, Maxim de Jong, Rachana Agrawal, Janusz J. Petkowski, Archit Arora, Sarag J. Saikia, Sara Seager, James Longuski and on behalf of the Venus Life Finder Mission Team

Aerospace 2022, 9(7), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070363 - 7 Jul 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2562

Abstract

Mounting evidence of chemical disequilibria in the Venusian atmosphere has heightened interest in the search for life within the planet’s cloud decks. Balloon systems are currently considered to be the superior class of aerial platform for extended atmospheric sampling within the clouds, providing [...] Read more.

Mounting evidence of chemical disequilibria in the Venusian atmosphere has heightened interest in the search for life within the planet’s cloud decks. Balloon systems are currently considered to be the superior class of aerial platform for extended atmospheric sampling within the clouds, providing the highest ratio of science return to risk. Balloon-based aerial platform designs depend heavily on payload mass and target altitudes. We present options for constant- and variable-altitude balloon systems designed to carry out science operations inside the Venusian cloud decks. The Venus Life Finder (VLF) mission study proposes a series of missions that require extended in situ analysis of Venus cloud material. We provide an overview of a representative mission architecture, as well as gondola designs to accommodate a VLF instrument suite. Current architecture asserts a launch date of 30 July 2026, which would place an orbiter and entry vehicle at Venus as early as November 29 of that same year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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16 pages, 4584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mission Architecture to Characterize Habitability of Venus Cloud Layers via an Aerial Platform

by Rachana Agrawal, Weston P. Buchanan, Archit Arora, Athul P. Girija, Maxim De Jong, Sara Seager, Janusz J. Petkowski, Sarag J. Saikia, Christopher E. Carr, David H. Grinspoon, James M. Longuski and on behalf of Venus Life Finder Mission Team

Aerospace 2022, 9(7), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9070359 - 6 Jul 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4594

Abstract

Venus is known for its extreme surface temperature and its sulfuric acid clouds. But the cloud layers on Venus have similar temperature and pressure conditions to those on the surface of Earth and are conjectured to be a possible habitat for microscopic life [...] Read more.

Venus is known for its extreme surface temperature and its sulfuric acid clouds. But the cloud layers on Venus have similar temperature and pressure conditions to those on the surface of Earth and are conjectured to be a possible habitat for microscopic life forms. We propose a mission concept to explore the clouds of Venus for up to 30 days to evaluate habitability and search for signs of life. The baseline mission targets a 2026 launch opportunity. A super-pressure variable float altitude balloon aerobot cycles between the altitudes of 48 and 60 km, i.e., primarily traversing the lower, middle, and part of the upper cloud layers. The instrument suite is carried by a gondola design derived from the Pioneer Venus Large Probe pressure vessel. The aerobot transmits data via an orbiter relay combined with a direct-to-Earth link. The orbiter is captured into a 6-h retrograde orbit with a low, roughly 170-degree, inclination. The total mass of the orbiter and entry probe is estimated to be 640 kg. An alternate concept for a constant float altitude balloon is also discussed as a lower complexity option compared to the variable float altitude version. The proposed mission would complement other planned missions and could help elucidate the limits of habitability and the role of unknown chemistry or possibly life itself in the Venus atmosphere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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18 pages, 2369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The ORIGIN Space Instrument for Detecting Biosignatures and Habitability Indicators on a Venus Life Finder Mission

by Niels F. W. Ligterink, Kristina A. Kipfer, Salome Gruchola, Nikita J. Boeren, Peter Keresztes Schmidt, Coenraad P. de Koning, Marek Tulej, Peter Wurz and Andreas Riedo

Aerospace 2022, 9(6), 312; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9060312 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3721

Abstract

Recent and past observations of chemical and physical peculiarities in the atmosphere of Venus have renewed speculations about the existence of life in its clouds. To find signs of Venusian life, a dedicated astrobiological space exploration mission is required, and for this reason [...] Read more.

Recent and past observations of chemical and physical peculiarities in the atmosphere of Venus have renewed speculations about the existence of life in its clouds. To find signs of Venusian life, a dedicated astrobiological space exploration mission is required, and for this reason the Venus Life Finder mission is currently being prepared. A Venus Life Finder mission will require dedicated and specialized instruments to hunt for biosignatures and habitability indicators. In this contribution, we present the ORIGIN space instrument, a laser desorption/laser ablation ionization mass spectrometer. This instrument is designed to detect large, non-volatile molecules, specifically biomolecules such as amino acids and lipids. At the same time, it can also be used in ablation mode for elemental composition analysis. Recent studies with this space prototype instrument of amino acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lipids, salts, metals, sulphur isotopes, and microbial elemental composition are discussed in the context of studies of biosignatures and habitability indicators in Venus’s atmosphere. The implementation of the ORIGIN instrument into a Venus Life Finder mission is discussed, emphasizing the low weight and low power consumption of the instrument. An instrument design and sample handling system are presented that make optimal use of the capabilities of this instrument. ORIGIN is a highly versatile instrument with proven capabilities to investigate and potentially resolve many of the outstanding questions about the atmosphere of Venus and the presence of life in its clouds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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10 pages, 258 KiB

Open AccessOpinion

Ammonia and Phosphine in the Clouds of Venus as Potentially Biological Anomalies

by Carol E. Cleland and Paul B. Rimmer

Aerospace 2022, 9(12), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9120752 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2196

Abstract

We are of the opinion that several anomalies in the atmosphere of Venus provide evidence of yet-unknown processes and systems that are out of equilibrium. The investigation of these anomalies on Venus should be open to a wide range of explanations, including unknown [...] Read more.

We are of the opinion that several anomalies in the atmosphere of Venus provide evidence of yet-unknown processes and systems that are out of equilibrium. The investigation of these anomalies on Venus should be open to a wide range of explanations, including unknown biological activity. We provide an overview of two anomalies, the tentative detection of ammonia and phosphine in Venus’s atmosphere. These anomalies fly in the face of the tacit assumption that the atmosphere of Venus must be in chemical redox equilibrium, an assumption connected to the belief that Venus is lifeless. We then discuss several major past discoveries in astronomy, biology and geology, which lead to the abandonment of certain assumptions held by many scientists as though they were well-established principles. The anomalies of ammonia and phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus are placed in the context of these historical discoveries. This context supports our opinion that persistence by the community in the exploration of these anomalies with a skeptical eye towards tacit assumptions will increase the chances of making profound discoveries about the atmosphere of Venus and the diverse and often strange nature of planetary environments. To be submitted to Aerospace Special Issue “The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs”. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

11 pages, 275 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

An Experimental Approach to Inform Venus Astrobiology Mission Design and Science Objectives

by Daniel Duzdevich, Janusz J. Petkowski, William Bains, H. James Cleaves II, Christopher E. Carr, Ewa I. Borowska, Armando Azua-Bustos, Morgan L. Cable, Graham E. Dorrington, David H. Grinspoon, Niels F. W. Ligterink, Andreas Riedo, Peter Wurz and Sara Seager

Aerospace 2022, 9(10), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9100597 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2637

Abstract

Exploring how life is distributed in the universe is an extraordinary interdisciplinary challenge, but increasingly subject to testable hypotheses. Biology has emerged and flourished on at least one planet, and that renders the search for life elsewhere a scientific question. We cannot hope [...] Read more.

Exploring how life is distributed in the universe is an extraordinary interdisciplinary challenge, but increasingly subject to testable hypotheses. Biology has emerged and flourished on at least one planet, and that renders the search for life elsewhere a scientific question. We cannot hope to travel to exoplanets in pursuit of other life even if we identify convincing biosignatures, but we do have direct access to planets and moons in our solar system. It is therefore a matter of deep astrobiological interest to study their histories and environments, whether or not they harbor life, and better understand the constraints that delimit the emergence and persistence of biology in any context. In this perspective, we argue that targeted chemistry- and biology-inspired experiments are informative to the development of instruments for space missions, and essential for interpreting the data they generate. This approach is especially useful for studying Venus because if it were an exoplanet we would categorize it as Earth-like based on its mass and orbital distance, but its atmosphere and surface are decidedly not Earth-like. Here, we present a general justification for exploring the solar system from an astrobiological perspective, even destinations that may not harbor life. We introduce the extreme environments of Venus, and argue that rigorous and observation-driven experiments can guide instrument development for imminent missions to the Venusian clouds. We highlight several specific examples, including the study of organic chemistry under extreme conditions, and harnessing the fluorescent properties of molecules to make a variety of otherwise challenging measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Search for Signs of Life on Venus: Science Objectives and Mission Designs)

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