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Animals
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Health and Diseases of Koalas
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Health and Diseases of Koalas

A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Wildlife".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2022) | Viewed by 45571

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Natasha Speight

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
Interests: koalas; oxalate nephrosis; chlamydiosis; koala retrovirus; mange; disease

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Koala populations are declining across Australia, and a major threat to them is disease. Chlamydia and koala retrovirus are two key infectious pathogens of koalas, which cause ocular and urogenital disease, and leukemic and lymphomic cancers, respectively. Research has uncovered many complex mechanisms in the pathogenesis of both these infections, and the potential for koala retrovirus to predispose to chlamydial disease. Other infectious conditions of koalas include the virus Phascolarctid herpesvirus, and the parasitic infection Sarcoptes scabiei, whilst non-infectious diseases include oxalate nephrosis, a renal disease associated with a build-up of calcium oxalate crystals in the kidney. Together with the threats of climate change effects such as drought and bushfires, it is important to understand how koalas are affected by disease based on their unique physiological adaptations as a eucalypt specialist.

Novel papers from different aspects of koala health and disease are invited to this Special Issue that aims to bring together the latest research on koalas, such as (but not limited to):

  • Unravelling the complexity of infectious diseases of koalas;
  • Pathological conditions of koalas;
  • Climate-change-related health and dietary issues;
  • Role of gut microbiota in koala health.

Dr. Natasha Speight
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

  • koalas
  • health
  • disease
  • Chlamydiosis
  • koala retrovirus
  • gut microbiome
  • pathology

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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2 pages, 156 KiB  
Editorial
Health and Diseases of Koalas
by Natasha Speight
Animals 2022, 12(8), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12081005 - 13 Apr 2022
Viewed by 2173
Abstract
The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an arboreal marsupial that is found throughout much of eastern and southeastern Australia, and it relies primarily on eucalypt trees for food, water and shelter [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)

Research

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17 pages, 1213 KiB  
Article
Pharmacokinetic Profile of Doxycycline in Koala Plasma after Weekly Subcutaneous Injections for the Treatment of Chlamydiosis
by Chien-Jung Chen, Amber Gillett, Rosemary Booth, Benjamin Kimble and Merran Govendir
Animals 2022, 12(3), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030250 - 20 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2539
Abstract
Six mature, male koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), with clinical signs of chlamydiosis, were administered doxycycline as a 5 mg/kg subcutaneous injection, once a week for four weeks. Blood was collected at standardised time points (T = 0 to 672 h) to quantify [...] Read more.
Six mature, male koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), with clinical signs of chlamydiosis, were administered doxycycline as a 5 mg/kg subcutaneous injection, once a week for four weeks. Blood was collected at standardised time points (T = 0 to 672 h) to quantify the plasma doxycycline concentrations through high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). In five koalas, the doxycycline plasma concentration over the first 48 h appeared to have two distinct elimination gradients; therefore, a two-compartmental analysis was undertaken to describe the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile. The average ± SD maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) was 312.30 ± 107.74 ng/mL, while the average time ± SD taken to reach the maximum plasma concentration (Tmax) was 1.68 ± 1.49 h. The mean ± SD half-life of the distribution phase (T1/2 α) and the elimination phase (T1/2 β) were 10.51 ± 7.15 h and 82.93 ± 37.76 h, respectively. The average ± SD percentage of doxycycline binding to koala plasma protein was 83.65 ± 4.03% at three different concentrations, with a mean unbound fraction (fu) of 0.16. Using probability of target attainment modelling, doxycycline plasma concentrations were likely to inhibit 90% of pathogens with the doxycycline minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 8.0–31.0 ng/mL, and the reported doxycycline MIC to inhibit Chlamydia pecorum isolates at the area under the curve/minimum inhibitory concentration (AUC/MIC) target of ≥24. All koalas were confirmed to be negative for Chlamydia pecorum using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), from ocular and penile urethra swabs, three weeks after the last doxycycline injection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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12 pages, 819 KiB  
Article
Pharmacokinetic Profile of Fentanyl in the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) after Intravenous Administration, and Absorption via a Transdermal Patch
by Fumie Tokonami, Benjamin Kimble and Merran Govendir
Animals 2021, 11(12), 3550; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11123550 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3137
Abstract
Fentanyl was administered as a single intravenous bolus injection at 5 µg/kg to five koalas and fentanyl plasma concentrations for a minimum of 2 h were quantified by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The median (range) fentanyl elimination half-life and clearance were 0.53 [...] Read more.
Fentanyl was administered as a single intravenous bolus injection at 5 µg/kg to five koalas and fentanyl plasma concentrations for a minimum of 2 h were quantified by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The median (range) fentanyl elimination half-life and clearance were 0.53 (0.38–0.91) h, and 10.01 (7.03–11.69) L/kg/h, respectively. Assuming an analgesic therapeutic plasma concentration of 0.23 ng/mL (extrapolated from human studies), an intravenous constant infusion rate was estimated at approximately between 1.7 to 2.7 µg/kg/h (using the clearance 95% confidence intervals). A transdermal fentanyl patch was applied to the antebrachium of an additional two koalas for 72 h. Fentanyl plasma concentrations were determined during the patch application and after patch removal at 80 h. The fentanyl plasma concentration was greater than 0.23 ng/mL after 12 to 16 h. While the patch was applied, the maximum fentanyl concentration was approximately 0.7 ng/mL from 32 to 72 h. Fentanyl plasma concentrations increased to 0.89 ng/mL 1 h after the patch was removed, and then decreased to a mean of 0.47 ng/mL at 80 h. The transdermal fentanyl patch is likely to provide some level of analgesia but should be initially co-administered with another faster acting analgesic for the first 12 h. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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11 pages, 2364 KiB  
Article
Over Time Decay of Cortisol Metabolites in Faecal Pellets of Koalas in Central Queensland
by Flavia Santamaria, Rolf Schlagloth, Rupert Palme and Joerg Henning
Animals 2021, 11(12), 3376; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11123376 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2497
Abstract
Faecal material can be a valuable source of information for a range of animal health aspects and can be used to measure faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs). FCM values can relate to physiological stress responses. However, freshly defecated pellets are not always available and [...] Read more.
Faecal material can be a valuable source of information for a range of animal health aspects and can be used to measure faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs). FCM values can relate to physiological stress responses. However, freshly defecated pellets are not always available and environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, might affect faecal pellet consistency and FCM levels. Therefore, the impact of environmental conditions on FCMs needs to be evaluated. We collected 107 pellets from two female and two male koalas, exposed them to three types of treatments, and analysed FCMs in these samples with three enzyme immunoassays (EIAs). After analysis, the original FCM values were mathematically corrected for water loss. Results show that the FCMs were more stable when measured using tetrahydrocorticosterone (50c) and 5α-pregnane-3β,11β,21-triol-20-one (37e) EIAs, and were less stable when measured with the cortisol EIA. With 50c, the FCM values did not vary significantly over time either before or after the adjustment with water in the environment treatment group. For samples kept under constant low (25 °C) and high (35 °C) temperatures, the 50c FCM values did not vary significantly over time, after adjustments were made for water loss. Thus, this study highlights the importance of considering the suitability of faecal field samples for FCM analysis. Because water loss was the main driver of FCM changes, we strongly recommend collecting koala pellets that are freshly defecated, despite the effort and time it might take to collect such pellets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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13 pages, 2454 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of Demographic and Triage Assessment Findings in Bushfire-Affected Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, 2019–2020
by Evie Dunstan, Oliver Funnell, Jenny McLelland, Felicity Stoeckeler, Elisa Nishimoto, Dana Mitchell, Sam Mitchell, David J. McLelland, Jerome Kalvas, Lynley Johnson, Claire Moore, Lauren J. M. Eyre, Amanda McLune, Ian Hough, Ludovica Valenza, Wayne S. J. Boardman, Ian Smith and Natasha Speight
Animals 2021, 11(11), 3237; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11113237 - 12 Nov 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7372
Abstract
In the 2019–2020 Australian bushfires, Kangaroo Island, South Australia, experienced catastrophic bushfires that burnt approximately half the island, with an estimated 80% of the koala population lost. During and after the event, rescued koalas were triaged at a designated facility and a range [...] Read more.
In the 2019–2020 Australian bushfires, Kangaroo Island, South Australia, experienced catastrophic bushfires that burnt approximately half the island, with an estimated 80% of the koala population lost. During and after the event, rescued koalas were triaged at a designated facility and a range of initial data were recorded including rescue location and date, sex, estimation of age, body condition and hydration, and assessment of burn severity (n = 304 records available). Koalas were presented to the triage facility over a span of 10 weeks, with 50.2% during the first 14 days of the bushfire response, the majority of which were rescued from regions of lower fire severity. Burns were observed in 67.4% of koalas, with the majority (60.9%) classified as superficial burns, primarily affecting the limbs and face. Poor body condition was recorded in 74.6% of burnt koalas and dehydration in 77.1%. Negative final outcomes (death or euthanasia, at triage or at a later date) occurred in 45.6% of koalas and were significantly associated with higher mean burn score, maximum burn severity, number of body regions burnt, poor body condition score, and dehydration severity. The findings of this retrospective study may assist clinicians in the field with decision making when triaging koalas in future fire rescue efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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17 pages, 2198 KiB  
Article
Seasonal Variations of Faecal Cortisol Metabolites in Koalas in South East Queensland
by Flavia Santamaria, Rupert Palme, Rolf Schlagloth, Edith Klobetz-Rassam and Joerg Henning
Animals 2021, 11(6), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061622 - 31 May 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5060
Abstract
The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an endemic marsupial inhabiting four states of Australia. Urbanisation, declining habitat, drought and fires are threatening the survival of this flagship species. These threats may cause acute and chronic stress in koalas, which might also be [...] Read more.
The Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is an endemic marsupial inhabiting four states of Australia. Urbanisation, declining habitat, drought and fires are threatening the survival of this flagship species. These threats may cause acute and chronic stress in koalas, which might also be associated with occurrence of infectious diseases in koala populations. Stress may induce an increase in cortisol reflected in increased faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) values. To be able to use faecal cortisol metabolites to measure stress levels in this species, our aim was to determine baseline values for males and females during breeding and non-breeding season. A total of 351 defecations were collected fortnightly, twice a day, for 12 months from koalas at a wildlife facility in South East Queensland. Samples were analysed with three different enzyme immunoassays (EIAs): a cortisol, 5α-pregnane-3β,11β,21-triol-20-one (37e) and tetrahydrocorticosterone (50c) EIA. The latter, which also reacts with tetrahydrocortisol, the main metabolite in koala faeces, was found to have the highest biological sensitivity and, therefore, is the most suitable EIA to measure stress levels in koalas. Utilising this EIA, we found significant differences (p < 0.05) in FCM values between males and females, breeding and non-breeding season, and between morning and evening samples. Values of faecal cortisol metabolites established in stress-free koalas in this study can serve as a reference for future studies in koalas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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13 pages, 1304 KiB  
Article
Molecular Diagnosis of Koala Retrovirus (KoRV) in South Australian Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)
by Tamsyn Stephenson, Natasha Speight, Wai Yee Low, Lucy Woolford, Rick Tearle and Farhid Hemmatzadeh
Animals 2021, 11(5), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11051477 - 20 May 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3903
Abstract
Koala retrovirus, a recent discovery in Australian koalas, is endogenised in 100% of northern koalas but has lower prevalence in southern populations, with lower proviral and viral loads, and an undetermined level of endogenisation. KoRV has been associated with lymphoid neoplasia, e.g., lymphoma. [...] Read more.
Koala retrovirus, a recent discovery in Australian koalas, is endogenised in 100% of northern koalas but has lower prevalence in southern populations, with lower proviral and viral loads, and an undetermined level of endogenisation. KoRV has been associated with lymphoid neoplasia, e.g., lymphoma. Recent studies have revealed high complexity in southern koala retroviral infections, with a need to clarify what constitutes positive and negative cases. This study aimed to define KoRV infection status in Mount Lofty Ranges koalas in South Australia using RNA-seq and proviral analysis (n = 216). The basis for positivity of KoRV was deemed the presence of central regions of the KoRV genome (gag 2, pol, env 1, and env 2) and based on this, 41% (89/216) koalas were positive, 57% (124/216) negative, and 2% inconclusive. These genes showed higher expression in lymph node tissue from KoRV positive koalas with lymphoma compared with other KoRV positive koalas, which showed lower, fragmented expression. Terminal regions (LTRs, partial gag, and partial env) were present in SA koalas regardless of KoRV status, with almost all (99.5%, 215/216) koalas positive for gag 1 by proviral PCR. Further investigation is needed to understand the differences in KoRV infection in southern koala populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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11 pages, 1672 KiB  
Article
Toll-Like Receptor Expression Profiles in Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Infected with Multiple KoRV Subtypes
by Mohammad Enamul Hoque Kayesh, Md Abul Hashem and Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara
Animals 2021, 11(4), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040983 - 1 Apr 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2814
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs), evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors, play an important role in innate immunity by recognizing microbial pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Koala retrovirus (KoRV), a major koala pathogen, exists in both endogenous (KoRV-A) and exogenous forms (KoRV-B to J). However, the expression profile [...] Read more.
Toll-like receptors (TLRs), evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors, play an important role in innate immunity by recognizing microbial pathogen-associated molecular patterns. Koala retrovirus (KoRV), a major koala pathogen, exists in both endogenous (KoRV-A) and exogenous forms (KoRV-B to J). However, the expression profile of TLRs in koalas infected with KoRV-A and other subtypes is yet to characterize. Here, we investigated TLR expression profiles in koalas with a range of subtype infection profiles (KoRV-A only vs. KoRV-A with KoRV-B and/or -C). To this end, we cloned partial sequences for TLRs (TLR2–10 and TLR13), developed real-time PCR assays, and determined TLRs mRNA expression patterns in koala PBMCs and/or tissues. All the reported TLRs for koala were expressed in PBMCs, and variations in TLR expression were observed in koalas infected with exogenous subtypes (KoRV-B and KoRV-C) compared to the endogenous subtype (KoRV-A) only, which indicates the implications of TLRs in KoRV infection. TLRs were also found to be differentially expressed in koala tissues. This is the first report of TLR expression profiles in koala, which provides insights into koala’s immune response to KoRV infection that could be utilized for the future exploitation of TLR modulators in the maintenance of koala health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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Review

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11 pages, 1236 KiB  
Review
Vaccination against the Koala Retrovirus (KoRV): Problems and Strategies
by Joachim Denner
Animals 2021, 11(12), 3555; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11123555 - 14 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2850
Abstract
The koala retrovirus (KoRV) is spreading in the koala population from the north to the south of Australia and is also in the process of endogenization into the koala genome. Virus infection is associated with tumorigenesis and immunodeficiency and is contributing to the [...] Read more.
The koala retrovirus (KoRV) is spreading in the koala population from the north to the south of Australia and is also in the process of endogenization into the koala genome. Virus infection is associated with tumorigenesis and immunodeficiency and is contributing to the decline of the animal population. Antibody production is an excellent marker of retrovirus infection; however, animals carrying endogenous KoRV are tolerant. Therefore, the therapeutic immunization of animals carrying endogenous KoRV seems to be ineffective. Using the recombinant transmembrane (TM) envelope protein of the KoRV, we immunized goats, rats and mice, obtaining in all cases neutralizing antibodies which recognize epitopes in the fusion peptide proximal region (FPPR), and in the membrane-proximal external region (MPER). Immunizing several animal species with the corresponding TM envelope protein of the closely related porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV), as well as the feline leukemia virus (FeLV), we also induced neutralizing antibodies with similar epitopes. Immunizing with the TM envelope protein in addition to the surface envelope proteins of all three viruses resulted in higher titers of neutralizing antibodies. Immunizing KoRV-negative koalas with our vaccine (which is composed of both envelope proteins) may protect these animals from infection, and these may be the starting points of a virus-free population. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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10 pages, 1157 KiB  
Review
The Koala Immune Response to Chlamydial Infection and Vaccine Development—Advancing Our Immunological Understanding
by Bonnie L Quigley and Peter Timms
Animals 2021, 11(2), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11020380 - 3 Feb 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4323
Abstract
Chlamydia is a significant pathogen for many species, including the much-loved Australian marsupial, the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). To combat this situation, focused research has gone into the development and refinement of a chlamydial vaccine for koalas. The foundation of this process [...] Read more.
Chlamydia is a significant pathogen for many species, including the much-loved Australian marsupial, the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). To combat this situation, focused research has gone into the development and refinement of a chlamydial vaccine for koalas. The foundation of this process has involved characterising the immune response of koalas to both natural chlamydial infection as well as vaccination. From parallels in human and mouse research, it is well-established that an effective anti-chlamydial response will involve a balance of cell-mediated Th1 responses involving interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), humoral Th2 responses involving systemic IgG and mucosal IgA, and inflammatory Th17 responses involving interleukin 17 (IL-17) and neutrophils. Characterisation of koalas with chlamydial disease has shown increased expression within all three of these major immunological pathways and monitoring of koalas’ post-vaccination has detected further enhancements to these key pathways. These findings offer optimism that a chlamydial vaccine for wider distribution to koalas is not far off. Recent advances in marsupial genetic knowledge and general nucleic acid assay technology have moved koala immunological research a step closer to other mammalian research systems. However, koala-specific reagents to directly assay cytokine levels and cell-surface markers are still needed to progress our understanding of koala immunology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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Other

13 pages, 1990 KiB  
Brief Report
Physiological Stress in Rescued Wild Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) Being Held in a Rehabilitation Sanctuary: A Pilot Study
by Renae Charalambous, Troy Simonato, Matthew Peel and Edward J. Narayan
Animals 2021, 11(10), 2864; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11102864 - 30 Sep 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3457
Abstract
Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are one of Australia’s most charismatic native small marsupial species. Unfortunately, populations of koalas are rapidly declining throughout Australia as they continue to face increasing pressure from a changing ecosystem. All wildlife species to some degree will use [...] Read more.
Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) are one of Australia’s most charismatic native small marsupial species. Unfortunately, populations of koalas are rapidly declining throughout Australia as they continue to face increasing pressure from a changing ecosystem. All wildlife species to some degree will use their hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis in response to stress. Depending on the duration of activation, the stress response can lead to either acute or chronic side effects and is modulated through the neuroendocrine stress system with the release of catecholamines and glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol). It is well known that rehabilitation sanctuaries are inherently stressful for all animals, in particular for rescued wild koalas, as it is an unfamiliar environment where the animals cannot predict or control what will happen to them. In this pilot study, we set out to quantify faecal and fur cortisol metabolites in wild rescued koalas undergoing wildlife rehabilitation. Absolute levels of acute and chronic stress were indexed non-invasively, with faecal samples taken to evaluate acute stress, and fur samples taken to evaluate chronic stress. Sampling occurred sporadically over four months (the start of September 2018 to the end of December 2018), and was performed on three rescued koalas (Maree, Tai, and Solstice) being held at the rehabilitation centre. Results of this study show that between the three koalas, the highest recorded faecal cortisol result was 241 ng/g, and the lowest recorded faecal cortisol result was 4 ng/g, whereas the highest recorded fur cortisol result was 1.75 ng/g, and the lowest recorded fur cortisol result was 0.10 ng/g. Statistically, there was a significant difference between all three koalas and their faecal cortisol responses, as well as their fur cortisol responses. Statistically for Maree and Solstice, there was a significant difference in their faecal cortisol response between days when a stressor was recorded, and days when a stressor was not recorded. However, statistically for Tai, this was not the case, as there was no significant difference in his faecal cortisol response between days when a stressor was recorded, and days when a stressor was not recorded. In summary, the hypothesis that faecal glucocorticoids and fur glucocorticoids between koalas will differ based on individual responses to stressors was true as a whole, but individually, this hypothesis was true for Maree and Solstice, but untrue for Tai. The use of biological samples such as faeces and fur to obtain readings of glucocorticoids is a method of measuring absolute levels of physiological stress that is still evolving for koalas, and there is no current glucocorticoid baseline with which to compare the results of this study; although, measuring faecal and fur glucocorticoids is the first step in understanding how koalas undergoing wildlife rehabilitation respond to stressors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Diseases of Koalas)
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