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Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Civil Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 17956

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Dr. Boštjan Kovačić

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Independent Researcher, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia
Interests: geodesy; monitoring; surveying; displacement measurements; structural health monitoring; data analysis; geodetic equipment
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Dr. Rinaldo Paar

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Department of Applied Geodesy, Faculty of Geodesy, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: geodesy; geomatics; surveying; engineering geodesy; displacements monitoring; deformation monitoring; structural health monitoring; spatial data analysis; geodetic sensors
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Dr. Ján Erdélyi

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Department of Surveying, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
Interests: surveying; engineering surveying; deformation measurement; terrestrial laser scanning; automated measuring systems, building information modelling
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We would like to interest you in this Special Issue on “Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures” at Applied Sciences and cordially invite you to submit your articles. The purpose of this Special Issue is to compile studies of knowledge, research practice, and forecast development trends in the field of identification and measurement of displacements and deformations of engineering structures, with particular emphasis on measuring systems and signal processing methods to extract data results for engineering structures’ condition assessment.

The monitoring of engineering structures involves periodic or continuous observations to estimate the object’s general current state, as well as the determination of the need for structure remediation, reconstruction, or destruction. The process involves the performance of different kinds of measurements using different sensors, instruments, and systems. The measurements and results must be precise and reliable, i.e., accurate and tested for significance. The measurement results represent an important parameter in assessing the condition and safety of the structures, and it is especially important for structures used beyond their designed lifetime. Engineering structures, as well as all civil infrastructures, deteriorate during their structural lifetime. Any kind of damage or significant deformation affects the safety of the structures, e.g., bridges, tunnels, dams, towers, skyscrapers, etc., and this can result in their closure or even collapse. There are several types of monitoring: construction monitoring, structural health monitoring, geotechnical monitoring, geodetic monitoring (structural and geo-monitoring) and different methods for static and long-term deformation measurement.

The process of data acquisition from monitoring systems is inevitably influenced by the available technologies with their advantages and disadvantages. The usual approach in data acquisition in the field of engineering structures is based on contact point sensors (e.g., displacement, strain gauges, tilt sensors, or accelerometers) whose measurements are transferred via wired connections to the data acquisition hardware, which is rather complex, expensive, and time-consuming to set up. The elimination of physical installations of sensors on different structures is very attractive, especially for structures that might not be easily or safely accessible. In addition to contact sensors, vision-based (e.g., TLS, RTS, IATS, IASTS, ground based radars) monitoring is possibly the solution that attracts a lot of interest on the part of civil engineers.

As the combination of different sensors for static and dynamic identification and measurement of displacements and deformations often covers sensors combined in one instrument, such as terrestrial laser scanners or total stations (RTS, IATS, IASTS) as well as measurement systems combing different multi-sensors systems and instruments for integrated solutions (GNSS, InSAR). The need for new sensor models and calibration procedures to reduce and eliminate errors and influences occurs. In addition, quality characteristics such as precision, reliability, accuracy, completeness, robustness, integrity, or availability may play a role. These may be seen as stand-alone quality aspects or as parts of a complete quality model.

Articles dealing with state-of-the-art sensors, instruments, and systems, with best-practice examples, as well as low-cost sensors and modelling approaches and proper handling of uncertainties with emphasis on more stringent requirements in terms of time and accuracy may be submitted in this Special Issue.

Dr. Boštjan Kovačić
Dr. Rinaldo Paar
Dr. Ján Erdélyi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

displacement, deformation measurement
vibration monitoring
contactless vision-based monitoring
monitoring systems
geodetic monitoring: structural monitoring and geo-monitoring
modal natural frequencies
structural health monitoring (SHM)
finite element method (FEM)
fast Fourier transformation (FFT)
geodetic instruments (TS, RTS, IATS, IASTS, GNSS, TLS, LIDAR)
sensors (accelerometers, LVDT, clinometers, strain gauges, vibrometers, speedometers, tilt sensors)
ground-based radar interferometry
low-cost sensors
techniques for online real-time system condition monitoring
spatial data analysis
experimental and in situ measurements

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Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures: 2nd Edition in Applied Sciences (2 articles)

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17 pages, 23689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Inner Lining Loss and Correlation with Steel Structure Ovality in Rotary Kilns

by David Zahradník, Jakub Vynikal and Karel Pavelka

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12811; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312811 - 29 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1414

Abstract

The article delves into the application of laser scanning within the realm of engineering, concentrating its examination on rotary kilns. Through an in-depth case study, this article meticulously assesses the advantages inherent in utilising laser scanning technology and draws comparisons with conventional measurement methods. The overarching objective of the investigation is to unravel the intricate relationship between the deterioration of the rotary kiln liners and the ovality of the underlying steel structure. By meticulously analysing these aspects, this article seeks to contribute valuable insights into the understanding of this complex interplay in the context of engineering practices. As a measurement apparatus, a terrestrial laser scanner was used. The interior and exterior of the rotary kiln were measured. The primary focus object was inner-lining loss and the geometric characteristics of the cylindrical shells. The research uncovered significant disparities in inner lining loss between the sections. A correlation was found between the ovality and elimination of the inner lining. Due to the hypothesis of constant inner lining loss in the middle of the rotary kiln, the investigation found that the loss of brick lining was less than the value reported from the wells. This study offers significant information on the maintenance and repair strategies for rotary kilns, which have the potential to increase their efficiency and useful life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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24 pages, 12108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Bridge Dynamic Deformation Law Based on Digital Photography and Ground-Based RAR Technology

by Yongqian Zhao, Guoqing Zhang, Gengchen Zang, Guojian Zhang, Wengang Sang, Sifeng Zhang and Wanqiu Li

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 10838; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131910838 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1130

Abstract

Dynamic deflection deformation is a crucial index which can reflect the healthy operation of bridges; due to their limitations, monitoring technologies (e.g., sensors, automatic total stations, and GPS) cannot perform high-frequency and whole-process non-contact dynamic deformation monitoring. Therefore, taking the Jinan Fenghuangshan Road Bridge as an example, this paper developed key low-cost and high-precision close-range photogrammetry technology and combined this with GB-RAR technology to remotely monitor bridge dynamic deformation. The results indicate that the measurement accuracy pertaining to the technology, which is based on an isometric virtual surface, is approximately 0.5 mm when the monitoring distance is 250 m, which can meet the accuracy requirements of bridge deformation monitoring. A vehicle’s dynamic load is transmitted in the form of a stress wave inside the bridge, and with regard to span, the wave is most significant in the 1/2 to 1/4 range. This study observes that the maximum deflection deformation of the bridge is 47.2 mm, which is within the allowable deformation range of the General Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges and Culverts. The research results herein provide technical support and data reference for safety monitoring, and for the reinforcement and maintenance of bridges such as the Fenghuangshan Road Bridge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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19 pages, 6638 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Application and Comparison of Non-Contact Vibration Monitoring Methods for Concrete Railway Sleepers

by Boštjan Kovačič, Sebastian Toplak, Rinaldo Paar and Samo Lubej

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(24), 12875; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412875 - 15 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1961

Abstract

This paper describes the non-contact vibration monitoring of prestressed reinforced concrete railway sleepers. The monitoring was carried out using physical measuring equipment consisting of a seismograph and geophones, a robotic total station (RTS) and scanning laser Doppler vibrometry (SLDV) equipment. Measurements of the dynamic response of sleepers to the dynamic loading induced by the running of train sets provides data that give an insight into the actual state of the sleeper structure at the moment when it is most stressed. The main objective of the study was to identify the most appropriate form of monitoring to monitor events related to the occurrence of cracks in the rail sill, which can also be caused by the impact of vibration. As is well-known, monitoring the dynamic response of railway sleepers is very important for the sustainable management and maintenance of railway lines. The vibration analysis was carried out in the field on the Ormož–Ptuj section of the railway line, in Velika Nedelja and in the laboratory of the UM FGPA, where the vibration was simulated using a hydraulic kit with a static and pulsed force of 100 kN. Several cycles of measurement were carried out and the results were compared with the results of the field monitoring. The vibration parameters measured for the concrete sleepers are necessary to develop a realistic dynamic model of the railway line, which will be able to predict its response to impact loads and the possible occurrence of damage, as has recently been observed for concrete sleepers in several European Union countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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23 pages, 7431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fusion of Laser Scans and Image Data—RGB+D for Structural Health Monitoring of Engineering Structures

by Josip Peroš, Rinaldo Paar, Vladimir Divić and Boštjan Kovačić

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(22), 11763; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122211763 - 19 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1822

Abstract

A novel method for structural health monitoring (SHM) by using RGB+D data has been recently proposed. RGB+D data are created by fusing image and laser scan data, where the D channel represents the distance, interpolated from laser scanner data. RGB channel represents image data obtained by an image sensor integrated in robotic total station (RTS) telescope, or on top of the telescope i.e., image assisted total station (IATS). Images can also be obtained by conventional cameras, or cameras integrated with RTS (different kind of prototypes). RGB+D image combines the advantages of the two measuring methods. Laser scans are used for distance changes in the line of sight and image data are used for displacements determination in two axes perpendicular to the viewing direction of the camera. Image feature detection and matching algorithms detect and match discrete points within RGB+D images obtained from different epochs. These way 3D coordinates of the points can be easily calculated from RGB+D images. In this study, the implementation of this method was proposed for measuring displacements and monitoring the behavior of structural elements under constant load in field conditions. For the precision analysis of the proposed method, displacements obtained from a numerical model in combination with measurements from a high precision linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) sensor was used as a reference for the analysis of determined displacements from RGB+D images. Based on the achieved results, we calculated that in this study, the precision of the image matching and fusion part of the RGB+D is ±1 mm while using the ORB algorithm. The ORB algorithm was determined as the optimal algorithm for this study, with good computing performance, lowest processing times and the highest number of usable features detected. The calculated achievable precision for determining height displacement while monitoring the behavior of structural element wooden beam under different loads is ±2.7 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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22 pages, 9124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Monitoring of the Standard Penetration of PHC Tubular Piles and Analysis of the Construction Effect Based on Monocular Visual Digital Photography

by Guojian Zhang, Zhiyong Liu, Wei Xiong, Sifeng Zhang, Shengzhen Liu, Zhiwei Wang and Yushuai Wang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(22), 11468; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122211468 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1329

Abstract

The penetration of large-diameter tubular piles and their relevant construction effect have significant influences on the bearing capacity of piles and nearby buildings (structures). This study focuses on developing an indoor test model device for the dynamic field monitoring of the construction effect of penetrated large-diameter tubular piles based on monocular visual digital photography. The results show that the relationship between the penetration of the tubular piles and time function (blow counts) changes from a logarithmic function to a linear function when piles penetrate from the loose layer to the sandy layer, and then to the silty soil layer. The penetration rates differ significantly under different formation conditions. There are obvious plugging and squeezing effects as tubular piles penetrate different strata. The plugging effect radiates outward in a rectangular shape. The influence sphere of the squeezing effect is divided into the shear failure zone, radial squeezing zone, and hemispherical expansion zone. According to the measurement data, the squeezing effect increases first and then weakens during the construction of tubular piles. This makes the adjacent pile deviate from the initial position by 17.4 mm, making the next pile deviate from the initial position by 6.4 mm, to the maximum extent. This further verifies the superiority of pile-jumping construction. The research conclusions can provide reasonable suggestions and a reference basis to improve the penetration parameters of tubular piles and optimise their construction techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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12 pages, 4054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GB-RAR Deformation Information Estimation of High-Speed Railway Bridge in Consideration of the Effects of Colored Noise

by Cheng Wang, Lv Zhou, Jun Ma, Anping Shi, Xinyi Li, Lilong Liu, Zhi Zhang and Di Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(20), 10504; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122010504 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1448

Abstract

Safety assessment must accurately grasp deformation information of a high-speed railway bridge. When the ground-based radar collected high-frequency data, white and colored noises will be present in the radar signal due to the influence of environment and instrument errors. The existence of the above-mentioned two kinds of noises will affect the accurate estimation of deformation information. Based on the above situation, a ground-based real aperture radar (GB-RAR) deformation information estimation method considering the effect of colored noise was proposed in this work. The proposed method was applied to the safety monitoring and analysis of East Lake High-tech Bridge during the Wuhan Metro Line 11 shield tunnel crossing underneath this bridge. First, the settlement deformation time series of the bridge was derived based on GB-RAR, and it was verified by leveling at an accuracy better than 0.27 mm. Second, white, and colored noises were detected in the denoised settlement deformation time series through a power spectral analysis and maximum likelihood estimation, and the colored noise spectral indexes were approximately −1. Finally, according to the proposed method, the estimated settlement rates of No. 7 and 8 piers were 0.0112 ± 0.0026 and −0.0046 ± 0.0053 mm/h, and the accumulative settlement values were −0.40 and −0.16 mm, respectively. The results were in good agreement with the results of leveling measurement and more accurate than those of the deformation information estimation method without considering the effect of colored noise. The research results showed the reliability and effectiveness of the method in this work, and the bridge was stable and safe during the monitoring period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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15 pages, 5482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Foundation Deformation and Structural Stress Variation of Shaft Tower under the Influence of Frost Heave and Thaw Settlement

by Wei Qin, Wei Zhao, Jie Gao and Hongzhen Zhang

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(12), 6216; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126216 - 18 Jun 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1708

Abstract

As the laws of structure deformation and structural stress variation under freezing construction around high-rise buildings are not clear and no engineering experience can be referred to, freezing method construction in this situation is paired with huge safety risks. In this paper, freezing construction was successfully carried out around the main shaft tower in Chensilou Coal Mine by taking the following protective measures: symmetrical drilling, local freezing and hot water circulation. The elevation of the shaft tower foundation is continuously measured during the process of drilling, frost heaving and thaw settlement (hereinafter referred to as the DHS process). Benefiting from these protective measures, the maximum inclination value (−0.406 mm/m) of the shaft tower is controlled at well below the allowable value. The observation data informed the settlement and inclination of the tower foundation during the DHS process. A numerical model of the shaft tower is further established based on the observation data to reveal the tower structure’s law of stress variation during the DHS process. In addition, the fitting equation between the tower inclination value and the structural stress is obtained, which can provide a reference for freezing construction of similar high-rise buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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17 pages, 864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining and Investigating the Variability of Bridges’ Natural Frequencies with Ground-Based Radar

by Chris Michel and Sina Keller

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(11), 5354; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12115354 - 25 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1812

Abstract

Assessing the condition of bridge infrastructure requires estimating damage-sensitive features from reliable sensor data. This study proposes to estimate natural frequencies from displacement measurements of a ground-based interferometric radar (GBR). These frequencies are determined from the damped vibration after each vehicle crossing with least squares and compared to a Frequency Domain Decomposition result. We successfully applied the approach in an exemplary measurement campaign at a bridge near Coburg (Germany) with an additional comparison to commonly used strain sensors. Since temperature greatly influences natural frequencies, linear regression is used to correct this influence. A simulation shows that GBR, combined with the least squares approach, achieves the lowest uncertainty and variation in the linear regression, indicating better damage detection results. However, the success of the damage detection highly depends on correctly determining the temperature influence, which might vary throughout the structure. Future work should further investigate the biases and variability of this influence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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Other

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36 pages, 12090 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

GNSS-Assisted Low-Cost Vision-Based Observation System for Deformation Monitoring

by Roman Shults, Azhar Ormambekova, Yurii Medvedskij and Andriy Annenkov

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(5), 2813; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13052813 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1917

Abstract

This paper considers an approach to solve the structure monitoring problem using an integrated GNSS system and non-metric cameras with QR-coded targets. The system is defined as a GNSS-assisted low-cost vision-based observation system, and its primary application is for monitoring various engineering structures, including high-rise buildings. The proposed workflow makes it possible to determine the change in the structure geometric parameters under the impact of external factors or loads and in what follows to predict the displacements at a given observation epoch. The approach is based on the principle of relative measurements, implemented to find the displacements between pairs of images from non-metric cameras organized in a system of interconnected chains. It is proposed to determine the displacement between the images for different epochs using the phase correlation algorithm, which provides a high-speed solution and reliable results. An experimental test bench was prepared, and a series of measurements were performed to simulate the operation of one vision-based observation system chain. A program for processing the sequence of images in the MatLab programming environment using the phase correlation algorithm was implemented. An analysis of the results of the experiment was carried out. The analysis results allowed us to conclude that the suggested approach can be successfully implemented in compliance with the requirements for monitoring accuracy. The simulation of the vision-based observation system operation with accuracy estimation was performed. The simulation results proved the high efficiency of the suggested system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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24 pages, 10127 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Cause Analysis of Pier Inclination of An Expressway Interchange Bridge: Case Study

by Qingsong Fu, Xuefei Shi and Haiying Ma

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(15), 7647; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12157647 - 29 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2017

Abstract

An expressway interchange bridge was completed in 2016 in China. In 2019, disease phenomenon, including pier inclination, excessive support slip, and expansion joint damage, were found in the ramp bridge, which influenced the bridge safety and operation. This article conducts a forensic engineering field investigation and uses finite element modeling, revealing the process of disease occurrence according to the displacement cooperation relations in the pier–support–girder region. This research concludes that the main technical causes of the bridge’s disease include: (1) eccentric compression on the pier during construction and operation due to an improper design change and the asynchronous construction process; (2) asymmetric foundation settlement caused by the temporary load during construction and the weight of the filling soil during operation. Finally, the ethical factors leading to the disease are summarized based on technical causes, which can alert professional engineers to problems that should be considered in the design and construction of high-pier bridges with a soft foundation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Identification and Measurement of Displacements and Deformations of Engineering Structures)

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