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Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Science and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2022) | Viewed by 43530

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Prof. Dr. Agata Górska

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Department of Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS-SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: food chemistry; food byproduct analysis; protein chemistry; carbohydrate chemistry; fat chemistry; methods of bioactive component extraction from food and food byproducts; thermal analysis of food products
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Dear Colleagues,

Food and food byproduct analysis is a particularly important topic dealing with the development and application of various analytical procedures and methods determining the properties and safety of food and food constituents. It is an important tool not only for defining food quality but also for supporting the investigation of new food products and technologies. The continuous development of methodology and access to modern research equipment enable detailed research on the composition, structure, physicochemical properties, thermal characteristics, and stability of food products, and recently also byproducts of the food industry. Agro-industrial residues currently present little commercial value and are mostly disposed of as an industrial waste. Taking the aforementioned reasons into account, it is imperative to identify properties and potential applications of food by-products, which would fit in with current trends in circular ecology. The objective of this Special Issue is to present procedures and instrumental analytical techniques and methods commonly used to analyze food and food processing byproducts and to discuss their application in food research to detect and characterize specific food components of significance to food science and technology, such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Suggested research problems include but are not limited to the following topics:

Analysis of composition and structure of food and food byproducts using instrumental methods;
Characteristics of physicochemical properties of food and food byproducts;
Application of modern thermal techniques to study properties of food, specific food components, and processing byproducts of the food industry;
Stability, including oxidative stability of food and food byproducts;
Analysis of food processing byproducts as a source of bioactive substances;
Application of various extraction techniques assisted by modern methods to isolate bioactive components from food processing byproducts.

Prof. Dr. Agata Górska
Guest Editor

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Keywords

food by-products
composition and structure
instrumental methods
modern thermal techniques
oxidative stability
food processing

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Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

5 pages, 208 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on Application of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis

by Agata Górska

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3888; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083888 - 12 Apr 2022

Viewed by 1471

Abstract

The application of various analytical procedures and methods determining the properties and safety of food and food constituents is a particularly important topic when dealing with food and food by-product analyses [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

Research

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16 pages, 349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sous Vide Cooking Effects on Physicochemical, Microbiological and Sensory Characteristics of Pork Loin

by Lidia Kurp, Marzena Danowska-Oziewicz and Lucyna Kłębukowska

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(5), 2365; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052365 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3778

Abstract

Pork loin slices were sous vide cooked at 60 °C and 65 °C for 2 h, 3 h and 4 h, and at 70 °C and 75 °C for 1 h, 1.5 h and 2 h. The cooking loss of the meat samples [...] Read more.

Pork loin slices were sous vide cooked at 60 °C and 65 °C for 2 h, 3 h and 4 h, and at 70 °C and 75 °C for 1 h, 1.5 h and 2 h. The cooking loss of the meat samples significantly increased with the temperature and time of heat treatment, but no correlation between cooking loss and moisture content in the samples was noted. All samples showed similar pH and water activity values. Regarding colour parameters, only yellowness showed significant differences between the samples and was affected by the temperature and time of cooking. Texture profile analysis revealed the lowest hardness of the samples cooked at 60 °C. Sensory analysis showed that cooking at 60 or 65 °C for 4 h ensured the most acceptable sensory features of the investigated samples, and tenderness and juiciness influenced the overall acceptability in the highest degree. All samples were microbiologically safe for consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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12 pages, 11434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Chromatographic and Thermal Methods to Study Fatty Acids Composition and Positional Distribution, Oxidation Kinetic Parameters and Melting Profile as Important Factors Characterizing Amaranth and Quinoa Oils

by Magdalena Wirkowska-Wojdyła, Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza, Agata Górska and Joanna Bryś

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 2166; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042166 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2431

Abstract

Amaranth and quinoa are classed as pseudocereals that do not belong to the grass family, meaning they are not technically a grain. Both of them are seeds with tremendous nutritional value; compared to other cereals, they contain much more fat. The aim of the study was to present the parameters characterizing thermal properties of amaranth and quinoa oils, such as: oxidation induction time, oxidation kinetic parameters, and melting profile. In isolated oils, the peroxide value, oxidative stability by the Rancimat test (in 120 °C) and the pressure differential scanning calorimetry (PDSC) method (at 100, 110, 120, 130, 140 °C), fatty acids composition, and their distribution between the triacylglycerol positions were determined. The kinetic parameters of the oxidation process (activation energy, pre-exponential factor, and reaction rate constants) were calculated using the Ozawa–Flynn–Wall method and the Arrhenius equation. To measure the melting profile, the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) method was used. Both types of seeds are a good source of unsaturated fatty acids. Induction time of oxidation suggests that amaranth oil may have better resistance to oxidation than quinoa oil. The melting characteristics of the oils show the presence of low-melting triacylglycerol fractions, mainly containing unsaturated fatty acids, which means that a small amount of energy is required to melt the fats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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14 pages, 1508 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Attempt to Develop an Effective Method for the Separation of Gamma-Decalactone from Biotransformation Medium

by Jolanta Małajowicz, Agata Górska, Joanna Bryś, Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza and Magdalena Wirkowska-Wojdyła

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 2084; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042084 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2620

Abstract

Gamma-decalactone (GDL) is a fragrance compound obtained in the process of β-oxidation of ricinoleic acid, which is derived from the hydrolysis of castor oil. The biotechnological method of the synthesis of this lactone has been improved for over two decades, but the vast majority of research results have been based only on determining the concentration of the lactone by chromatographic methods without separating it from the biotransformation medium. In this study, we attempted to separate GDL from the medium in which the lactone was synthesized by Yarrowia lipolytica from castor oil. The effectiveness of liquid–liquid extraction, hydrodistillation, and adsorption on the porous materials (zeolite, vermiculite and resin Amberlite XAD-4) was compared. The influence of the solvent on the efficiency of GDL extraction, the influence of the acidity of the medium on the amount of GDL in the distillate, and the level of lactone adsorption on the above-mentioned adsorbents were compared by calculating the initial adsorption rate. The adsorption isotherm was determined for the most effective adsorbent. Among the five solvents tested, the most effective was diethyl ether, used at the ratio of 1:1. The extraction was characterized by higher efficiency than hydrodistillation; the difference in GDL determinations by these two methods ranged from 12.8 to 22%. The purity of the distillates was much higher than that of the extracts at 88.0 ± 3.4% compared to 53.0 ± 1.8%. The acidification of the biotransformation medium increased the concentration of the lactone in both the reaction mixture and the distillate. GDL was most efficiently adsorbed on Amberlite XAD-4 resin, for which the lactone isotherm adsorption was linear. The amount of lactone adsorbed on Amberlite XAD-4 within 1 h was approx. 80% (2.45 g), of which 1.96 g was then desorbed with ethanol. In the context of industrial applications, adsorption of GDL on Amberlite XAD-4 seems to be the most appropriate method due to material costs, the ease of the process, and low environmental burden. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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18 pages, 2037 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical Profile of Eight Categories of Functional Edible Oils: A Metabolomic Approach Based on Chromatography Coupled with Mass Spectrometry

by Carmen Socaciu, Francisc Dulf, Sonia Socaci, Floricuta Ranga, Andrea Bunea, Florinela Fetea and Adela Pintea

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(4), 1933; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12041933 - 12 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

Functional vegetable oils are highly considered not only for their nutritional value, but also for their health benefits. The profile of phytochemicals responsible for their quality is useful also for the identification of possible mislabeling or adulteration. The comparative composition of eight categories (sunflower, pumpkin, hempseed, linseed, soybean, walnut, sea buckthorn and olive) of commercial vs. authentic oils was determined. Fatty acids, volatiles, carotenoids, tocopherols, and phenolic components were analyzed by gas- and liquid chromatography-based techniques coupled with diode array, mass spectrometry, or fluorescence detection. Classification models, commonly used in metabolomics, e.g., principal component analysis, partial least squares discriminant analysis, hierarchical clusters and heatmaps have been applied to discriminate each category and individual samples. Carotenoids, tocopherols, and phenolics contributed mostly, qualitatively, and quantitatively to the discrimination between the eight categories of oils, as well as between the authentic and the commercial ones. This metabolomic approach can be easily implemented and the heatmaps can be considered as “identity” cards of each oil category and the quality of commercial oils, comparative to the authentic ones of the same botanical and geographical origin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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13 pages, 1457 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of a Chocolate Coating on the State Diagrams and Thermal Behaviour of Freeze-Dried Strawberries

by Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza, Karolina Szulc, Ewa Jakubczyk, Karolina Dolatowska-Żebrowska, Magdalena Wirkowska-Wojdyła, Joanna Bryś and Agata Górska

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1342; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031342 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3971

Abstract

Chocolate-coated fruit is becoming more and more popular as a tasty snack. The subjects of the research were freeze-dried strawberries and dark and milk chocolate-coated freeze-dried strawberries. The DSC curves, sorption isotherms, and glass transition temperature were determined. The state diagrams of the freeze-dried strawberries and dark and milk chocolate-coated freeze-dried strawberries were investigated. The modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) technique was used to determine the glass transition temperature. The DSC diagrams of the studied samples showed differences in shape and course. The sorption isotherms of the freeze-dried strawberries and dark and milk chocolate-coated strawberries belonged to type II according to BET classification. A coating of milk or dark chocolate resulted in a significant reduction in the hygroscopic behaviour of the freeze-dried strawberries and could be considered a promising way to improve the shelf life of the product and improve the nutritional value for commercial production purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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23 pages, 366 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Essential Oils on the Survival of Bifidobacterium in In Vitro Conditions and in Fermented Cream

by Mariola Kozłowska, Małgorzata Ziarno, Magdalena Rudzińska, Małgorzata Majcher, Jolanta Małajowicz and Karolina Michewicz

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1067; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031067 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2878

Abstract

Essential oils derived from plant materials are a mixture of compounds that exhibit antibacterial properties. Due to their distinct aroma, they also serve as a desirable natural additive for various food products, including dairy products. In this study, the essential oils of lemon peels, clove buds, and juniper berries were obtained by steam distillation and characterized using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to determine their chemical compositions and effects on the viability of seven Bifidobacterium strains. Furthermore, the effect of essential oils on the viability of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12 was investigated in cream samples during fermentation and after storage for 21 days at 6 °C. The fatty acid composition of fat extracted from essential oils containing sour cream samples and the volatile aroma compound profile of the sour cream samples were also determined chromatographically. Among the 120 compounds identified, monoterpene hydrocarbons were dominant in the essential oils of lemon peels (limonene and γ-terpinene) and juniper berries (sabinene and β-myrcene), while eugenol and eugenol acetate were abundant in the essential oil of clove buds. In addition to these compounds, butanoic and acetic acids were found in the tested sour cream samples. In turn, fat extracted from these samples was rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly palmitic acid. Among the tested strains of the genus Bifidobacterium, B. animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12 was the most sensitive to the essential oils of clove and juniper, as indicated by the larger growth inhibition zones. However, both the concentration and type of essential oils used had no effect on the number of cells of this strain present in the cream samples immediately after fermentation and after its 21-day storage, which suggests that the tested essential oils could be a natural additive to dairy products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

12 pages, 1757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aroma Profiles of Dry-Hopped Ciders Produced with Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic Hops

by Matthew T. Bingman, Josephine L. Hinkley, Colin P. Bradley II and Callie A. Cole

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(1), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12010310 - 29 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3184

Abstract

Cider quality and consumer acceptance are greatly influenced by its aroma. With the continued expansion of the craft cider industry, cider producers are employing techniques such as dry hopping to develop unique flavor profiles. Few studies, however, have explored the VOCs of dry-hopped cider. Herein, we monitor the development of VOCs from pressed apple juice, through fermentation and dry hopping by HS–SPME–GC–MS, to elucidate when and how aroma compounds arise in cider production. In all, 89 VOCs were detected, spanning eight classes of organic compounds. Racking events decreased ester concentrations by 10 ± 1%, but resting on the lees allowed these pleasant, fruity aromas to be reestablished. Dry hopping was conducted with three types of hops (Citra, Galaxy, and Mosaic). The varied development of terpenes and esters between hop varieties supports the use of this technique to diversify the aroma profiles of ciders. Herein, we report that both the variety of hops and the timing of key processing steps including racking and hop addition significantly alter the identity and concentration of aroma-important VOCs in dry-hopped cider. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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15 pages, 1499 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphorus and Nitrogen Limitation as a Part of the Strategy to Stimulate Microbial Lipid Biosynthesis

by Katarzyna Wierzchowska, Bartłomiej Zieniuk, Dorota Nowak and Agata Fabiszewska

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(24), 11819; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411819 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 3832

Abstract

Microbial lipids called a sustainable alternative to traditional vegetable oils invariably capture the attention of researchers. In this study, the effect of limiting inorganic phosphorus (KH₂PO₄) and nitrogen ((NH₄)₂SO₄) sources in lipid-rich culture medium on the efficiency of cellular lipid biosynthesis by Y. lipolytica yeast has been investigated. In batch cultures, the carbon source was rapeseed waste post-frying oil (50 g/dm³). A significant relationship between the concentration of KH₂PO₄ and the amount of lipids accumulated has been revealed. In the shake-flask cultures, storage lipid yield was correlated with lower doses of phosphorus source in the medium. In bioreactor culture in mineral medium with (g/dm³) 3.0 KH₂PO₄ and 3.0 (NH₄)₂SO₄, the cellular lipid yield was 47.5% (w/w). Simultaneous limitation of both phosphorus and nitrogen sources promoted lipid accumulation in cells, but at the same time created unfavorable conditions for biomass growth (0.78 g_d.m./dm³). Increased phosphorus availability with limited cellular access to nitrogen resulted in higher biomass yields (7.45 g_d.m./dm³) than phosphorus limitation in a nitrogen-rich medium (4.56 g_d.m./dm³), with comparable lipid yields (30% and 32%). Regardless of the medium composition, the yeast preferentially accumulated oleic and linoleic acids as well as linolenic acid up to 8.89%. Further, it is crucial to determine the correlation between N/P molar ratios, biomass growth and efficient lipid accumulation. In particular, considering the contribution of phosphorus as a component of coenzymes in many metabolic pathways, including lipid biosynthesis and respiration processes, its importance as a factor in the cultivation of the oleaginous microorganisms was highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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11 pages, 1415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Application of Near Infrared Reflectance (NIR) Spectroscopy for the Prediction of the Chemical Composition of Traditional Sausages

by Eleni Kasapidou, Vasileios Papadopoulos and Paraskevi Mitlianga

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(23), 11282; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311282 - 29 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2209

Abstract

In the present study, the potential of application of near infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy for the estimation of the chemical composition of traditional (village style) sausages was examined. The chemical composition (moisture, ash, protein and, fat content) was determined by standard reference methods. For the development of the calibration model, 39 samples of traditional fresh sausages were used, while for external validation, 10 samples of sausages were used. The correlation coefficients of calibration (RMSEC) and standard errors (SEC) were 0.92 and 1.58 (moisture), 0.77 and 0.18 (ash), 0.87 and 0.89 (protein) and 0.93 and 1.73 (fat). The cross-validation correlation coefficients (RMSECV) and standard errors (SECV) were 0.86 and 2.13 (moisture), 0.56 and 0.26 (ash), 0.78 and 1.17 (protein), and 0.88 and 2.17 (fat). The results of the calibration model showed that NIR spectroscopy can be applied to estimate with very good precision the fat content of traditional village-style sausages, whereas moisture and protein content can be estimated with good accuracy. The external validation confirmed the ability of NIR spectroscopy to predict the chemical composition of sausages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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12 pages, 1287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lipid Fraction Properties of Homemade Raw Cat Foods and Selected Commercial Cat Foods

by Agnieszka Górska, Diana Mańko-Jurkowska, Joanna Bryś and Agata Górska

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(22), 10905; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112210905 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2776

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to characterize lipid fraction extracted from five self-prepared and seven commercial cat foods using gas chromatography (GC) and pressurized differential scanning calorimetry (PDSC) techniques. Self-prepared food recipes were composed using BARFny kalkulator, software dedicated for balancing cat diets, and prepared on the basis of fresh raw meat and offal. Extracted fat fractions were compared qualitatively and quantitatively with literature data for the fat of whole prey items to check the main assumptions of the software used. The fatty acid (FA) composition and distribution were determined using GC. The PDSC method was used for the determination of the oxidative stability of extracted fats. The obtained results indicate that self-prepared cat foods contained a high level of essential fatty acids (EFA) but low oxidative stability, especially for those with significant amounts of polyunsaturated FA. The FA profile and oxidative stability were examined for four dry and three wet commercial cat foods. It was found that their omega-6 to omega-3 ratio was beneficial reaching 5.3:1 to 10.1:1, despite the low amount of EFA. The longer induction time was determined for fats extracted from commercial cat foods than for self-prepared ones, which indicate their higher oxidative stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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16 pages, 2963 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Application of Different Compositions of Apple Puree Gels and Drying Methods to Fabricate Snacks of Modified Structure, Storage Stability and Hygroscopicity

by Ewa Jakubczyk, Anna Kamińska-Dwórznicka, Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza, Agata Górska, Magdalena Wirkowska-Wojdyła, Diana Mańko-Jurkowska, Agnieszka Górska and Joanna Bryś

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(21), 10286; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112110286 - 2 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2232

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of incorporation of apple puree and maltodextrin to agar sol on the sorption properties and structure of the dried gel. The effect of different drying methods on the sorption behaviour of aerated apple puree gels was also observed. The gels with the addition of 25% and 40% concentration of apple puree and with or without maltodextrin were prepared and dried. The foamed agar gel was subjected to freeze-drying, air-drying and vacuum-drying. The sorption properties of dried gels (adsorption isotherms, water uptake in time) were investigated. The relations between the glass transition temperature, water activity and water content were also obtained for some apple snacks. The increase in apple puree in freeze-dried gels increased the hygroscopicity and decreased the glass transition temperature (T_g). The water content at given activity and hygroscopicity were reduced by the addition of maltodextrin, which also caused the increase in T_g. The application of different drying methods enabled obtaining different structures of material. The open-pore, fragile materials were obtained by freeze-drying, the expanded matrix with big holes was characteristic for vacuum-dried gels, but the closed pores with thick walls were created during the air-drying. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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Review

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35 pages, 5047 KiB

Open AccessReview

Alternative Methods of Bioactive Compounds and Oils Extraction from Berry Fruit By-Products—A Review

by Iga Piasecka, Artur Wiktor and Agata Górska

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031734 - 8 Feb 2022

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3947

Abstract

Berry fruit by-products are a source of polyphenol compounds and highly nutritious oils and can be reused to fulfill the requirements of the circular economy model. One of the methods of obtaining polyphenol-rich extracts or oils is extraction. Applying conventional solvent extraction techniques may be insufficient to reach high polyphenol or lipid fraction yields and selectivity of specific compounds. Alternative extraction methods, mainly ultrasound-assisted extraction, pulsed electric field-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction and supercritical fluid extraction, are ways to improve the efficiency of the isolation of bioactive compounds or oils from berry fruit by-products. Additionally, non-conventional techniques are considered as green extraction methods, as they consume less energy, solvent volume and time. The aim of this review is to summarize the studies on alternative extraction methods and their relationship to the composition of extracts or oils obtained from berry waste products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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21 pages, 3754 KiB

Open AccessReview

Current Status of Optical Systems for Measuring Lycopene Content in Fruits: Review

by Marcos-Jesús Villaseñor-Aguilar, José-Alfredo Padilla-Medina, José-Enrique Botello-Álvarez, Micael-Gerardo Bravo-Sánchez, Juan Prado-Olivares, Alejandro Espinosa-Calderon and Alejandro-Israel Barranco-Gutiérrez

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(19), 9332; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199332 - 8 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4384

Abstract

Optical systems are used for analysing the internal composition and the external properties in food. The measurement of the lycopene content in fruits and vegetables is important because of its benefits to human health. Lycopene prevents cardiovascular diseases, cataracts, cancer, osteoporosis, male infertility, and peritonitis. Among the optical systems focused on the estimation and identification of lycopene molecule are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), the colorimeter, infrared near NIR spectroscopy, UV-VIS spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and the systems of multispectral imaging (MSI) and hyperspectral imaging (HSI). The main objective of this paper is to present a review of the current state of optical systems used to measure lycopene in fruits. It also reports important factors to be considered in order to improve the design and implementation of those optical systems. Finally, it was observed that measurements with HPLC and spectrophotometry present the best results but use toxic solvents and require specialized personnel for their use. Moreover, another widely used technique is colorimetry, which correlates the lycopene content using color descriptors, typically those of CIELAB. Likewise, it was identified that spectroscopic techniques and multispectral images are gaining importance because they are fast and non-invasive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Instrumental Methods for Food and Food By-Products Analysis)

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