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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 21361

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Shanaka Baduge

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Guest Editor

Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Interests: prefabricated buildings; high-strength and high-performance concrete; light-weight structural systems; nanomaterial and nanoscale testing for construction material; multiscale modelling of concrete; waste recycling and low-carbon building materials
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Prof. Dr. Priyan Mendis

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Guest Editor

Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
Interests: safer and sustainable infrastructure; prefabricated construction; design of tall buildings and bridges; advanced construction materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The building and construction industry plays a key role in the socio-economic development of modern civilization by creating major infrastructure to facilitate major social and economic activities. Building materials, representing 50–80 % of the total value of the sector, are an essential element to achieve the anticipated capacity, safety, and performance of these infrastructures. Generally, multiple functions and multiple performances are expected from buildings and other structures. For instance, buildings and structures must resist gravity and extreme loads such as wind and earthquakes by satisfying strength and ductility requirements. At the same time, buildings and structures must be energy efficient in operation, sustainable, acoustically acceptable, durable, and fire-resistant. In addition, circular economy, low emissions, and recyclability have gained traction due to climate change and the global waste crisis. Further, due to advances in the off-site manufacturing of prefabricated structures, building materials which are lightweight, easy to transport, and able to be assembled on-site are preferred. Therefore, modern structures must satisfy multiple performance requirements, and those must be achieved through the proper selection of building materials and section sizes. Since the limits of structures are being pushed as a result of these new needs and higher demands for safety and human comfort, there is a need for the development of novel higher-performing materials.

Considering the increasing capacity and performance requirement of modern buildings and structures, this Special Issue on “Strength and Performance of Building Materials” aims to reflect the current state-of-the-art and new developments in all topics related to the evaluation of strength and performance of all building materials, with a focus on structural capacity, off-site manufacturing, fire, thermal properties, durability, acoustics, sustainability, and circularity.

Dr. Shanaka Baduge
Prof. Dr. Priyan Mendis
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

building materials
strength and performance
structural capacity
off-site manufacturing
thermal
durability
acoustic
sustainability

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 6377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Fire Protection Techniques on Impact Resistance of Self-Compacting Concrete

by Mervin Ealiyas Mathews, Tattukolla Kiran, Anand Nammalvar, A. Diana Andrushia and U. Johnson Alengaram

Buildings 2023, 13(6), 1487; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13061487 - 8 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1283

Abstract

The present research investigates the behaviour of sustainable Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC) when subjected to high temperatures, focusing on workability, post-fire impact resistance, and the effects of fire protection coatings. To develop environmentally friendly SCC mixes, Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) such as Fly Ash (FA), Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), and Expanded Perlite Aggregate (EPA) were used. Fifty-six cubes and ninety-six impact SCC specimens were cast and cured for testing. Fire-resistant Cement Perlite Plaster (CPP) coatings were applied to the protected specimens, a passive protection coating rarely studied. SCC (unprotected and protected) specimens, i.e., protected and unprotected samples, were heated following the ISO standard fire curve. An extensive comparative study has been conducted on utilising different SCMs for developing SCC. Workability behaviour, post-fire impact resistance, and the influence of fire protection coatings on sustainable SCC subjected to high temperatures are the significant parameters examined in the present research, including physical observations and failure patterns. The test results noted that after 30 min of exposure, the unprotected specimen exhibited a significant decrease in failure impact energy, ranging from 80% to 90%. Furthermore, as the heating duration increased, there was a gradual rise in the loss of failure impact energy. However, when considering the protected CPP specimens, it was observed that they effectively mitigated the loss of strength when subjected to elevated temperature. Therefore, the findings of this research may have practical implications for the construction industry and contribute to the development of sustainable and fire-resistant SCC materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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21 pages, 4625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Aluminum Alloy Formwork Geometry Parameters Based on a PSO-BP Neural Network

by Yingjie Chen, Zhenxiao Qian, Chaofeng Kang, Yunfeng Wu, Qun Dong and Chao Sun

Buildings 2023, 13(5), 1283; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13051283 - 15 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1803

Abstract

To assist in addressing the problem where an aluminum alloy formwork (AAF) deforms more greatly under the action of lateral pressure and therefore does not meet the requirements of plaster-free engineering, we propose a method for determining the geometric parameters of this formwork based on a PSO algorithm and BP neural network with ABAQUS as the platform. The influence of six geometric parameters of the formwork on the maximum deflection value of the panel under the action of lateral pressure is studied using finite element analysis. The maximum deflection value of the panel is used as the index, and the influence of each factor is analyzed with an orthogonal test, and a set of optimal geometric parameters is obtained via extreme difference analysis and analysis of variance. The sample data are obtained via finite element simulation, and the PSO-BP neural network model is established using the six factors of the orthogonal test as input values and the maximum deflection of the panel as the output value, and the optimal geometric parameters are optimized using the PSO algorithm. The results indicate that the maximum deflection for the panel in the orthogonal scheme is 1.446 mm. The PSO-BP neural network prediction model demonstrates greater accuracy and a 31.74% reduction in running time compared to the BP neural network prediction model. The optimized PSO-BP neural network prediction model scheme reveals a maximum panel deflection of 1.296 mm, a 10.37% decrease compared to the orthogonal solution. These findings offer technical guidance and a foundation for optimizing AAF designs, presenting practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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21 pages, 4967 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Monte Carlo-Based Approach to Assess the Reinforcement Depassivation Probability of RC Structures: Simulation and Analysis

by Emerson Felipe Félix, Isabela da Silva Falcão, Larissa Gabriela dos Santos, Rogério Carrazedo and Edna Possan

Buildings 2023, 13(4), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040993 - 9 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2048

Abstract

In this work, an approach is presented to assess the reinforcement depassivation probability of reinforced concrete structures under corrosion induced by carbonation or chloride diffusion. The model consists of coupling mathematical formulations of CO₂ and Cl⁻ diffusion with Monte Carlo simulation (MCS). Random events were generated using MCS to create several design life and environmental scenarios. A case study was performed by simulating five Brazilian environmental conditions and distinct mixes of concrete. The effect of input parameters on the reinforcement concrete depassivation probability was evaluated. The results point out that the depassivation probability due to carbonation is more significant in urban centers, and the compressive strength of concrete has the main influence on the depassivation probability. Results also showed that the depassivation probability due to chloride ingress is influenced by, in order of importance, the chloride content on the surface (61.4%), concrete cover (20.3%), compressive strength (7.1%), relative humidity (6.1%), and temperature (5.1%). In addition, an increase in the compressive strength of concrete, from 30 to 50 MPa, can reduce depassivation probability by up to 70%, resulting in a concrete structure that attends the durability limit state. Thus, by incorporating probabilistic approaches, this model can be a valuable tool in the civil construction industry for studying the improvement of durability, reliability, and safety of reinforced concrete structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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16 pages, 3262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Test and Unified Fatigue Life Calculation of Q460C Steel Notched Plates

by Fengjun Lv, Wanzhen Wang and Wei Zhao

Buildings 2023, 13(3), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030697 - 6 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1914

Abstract

In the present study, a total of 20 fatigue tests on notched plates of Q460C steel were carried out, where the effects of relative stress amplitude, Δσ/f_y, and relative nominal maximum stress, σ_max/f_y, on the fatigue life of these notched plates were carefully examined. Theoretical analyses and numerical simulations were subsequently conducted, based on an ellipsoidal fracture model originally proposed by the second author, which has been validated for use as a fracture criterion of fatigue crack, to investigate the fatigue cracking in the Q460C steel notched plates. The theoretical model was further developed to estimate the fatigue life of the Q460C steel notched plates using a unified crack growth approach originally proposed by the second author. Based on the theoretical and simulated results, the accuracy of the unified crack growth approach, and the allowable stress fatigue life formula recommended in China’s code GB50017-2017, were assessed. The comparisons indicate that the unified crack growth approach is able to provide a reliable fatigue life assessment for the Q460C steel notched plates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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17 pages, 7415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Bearing Safety and Influencing Factors of Supporting Structures of Hydraulic Tunnels in Cold Regions Based on Frost Heave

by Haibo Jiang, Dongsen Zhai, Kebin Shi and Pengfei Xiang

Buildings 2023, 13(2), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020544 - 16 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1336

Abstract

In order to study the bearing safety and influencing factors of the support structures of hydraulic tunnels in cold regions under the action of low-temperature frost heave, a mechanical model of the support structure and surrounding rock was established. Taking a hydraulic tunnel of a hydropower station in Xinjiang as the research object, a combination of field measurement and a numerical simulation method was adopted to study the bearing safety of the support structure during a period of freezing weather. Based on this model, the effects of different thermal expansion coefficients, temperature differences, and surrounding rock porosity on the bearing safety of the support structure in the low-temperature region were studied. From the calculation results, it was concluded that the simulation results of the numerical model established by using the mechanical model in this paper were in good agreement with the actual measurement results of the project. The circumferential freezing and compressive stresses at the arch waist of the supporting structure of the project were the largest, and significant plastic strain was generated near the arch waist. The displacement at the arch of the supporting structure was the largest, while the weak points were at the arch waist and arch top of the supporting structure. The coefficient of thermal expansion, greater temperature difference, and increased porosity of the surrounding rock all led to an increase in the rock freezing and swelling force to varying degrees, thus reducing the load-bearing safety of the supporting structure. The research results could provide a theoretical basis and a reliable mechanical and numerical simulation model for establishing the bearing safety of tunnels in the cold region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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20 pages, 4404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characterization of Masonry Built with iCEBs of Granite Residual Soils with Cement–Lime Stabilization

by Ana Briga-Sá, Rui A. Silva, Norma Gaibor, Vânia Neiva, Dinis Leitão and Tiago Miranda

Buildings 2022, 12(9), 1419; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12091419 - 9 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2087

Abstract

The environmental impact due to the overexploitation of nonrenewable resources, the processing and transportation of materials, and waste production is a global concern that the construction industry must urgently address, since it is among the greatest contributors. Earth construction can be seen as an alternative building solution, enhancing sustainability, despite traditional techniques being nowadays in disuse in most developed countries. Construction with interlocking compressed earth blocks (iCEBs) is a recently developed technique, put in evidence in the last few decades, for overcoming many earth construction limitations. Here, this technique is studied as a sustainable building solution for Northern Portugal, where the typical soils are sandy, granitic residual soils with low clay content. These soils typically demand cement stabilization to produce earthen materials, which compromise the sustainability of the construction solution. In order to improve sustainability, stabilization with hydraulic lime is proposed as a partial replacement of cement. For this purpose, the properties of the selected soil were characterized through a set of geotechnical tests, with different percentages of cement and lime in the mixture composition tested, concerning the compressive strength of the specimens. A mixture composed of 87.5% of soil, 7.5% of cement, and 5% of lime was shown to be the most suitable for producing iCEBs with adequate mechanical performance. The compressive behavior of the iCEBs masonry was characterized by testing prisms and wallettes, considering both dry stack and mortar joints cases. The obtained results showed that using mortar in the bed joints allows for the improvement of the compressive strength (a 5%–18% increase) and Young’s modulus (a 65%–92% increase) of the masonry. Thus, it can be concluded that masonry built with locally produced iCEBs and stabilized with cement and lime is a feasible building solution, for a sustainable earth masonry built from sandy granitic residual soils, where the mechanical behavior is substantially enhanced by using bed-joint mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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15 pages, 4606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Settlement Prediction of Ground Reinforcement Foundation Using a Deep Cement Mixing Method in Reclaimed Land

by Haksung Lee, Seok-Jae Kim, Bang-Hun Kang and Kwang-Seung Lee

Buildings 2022, 12(8), 1279; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081279 - 20 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2726

Abstract

The greenhouse foundation method requires a lower allowable bearing capacity compared to general buildings, but the high-spec and expensive prestressed high-strength concrete (PHC) pile reinforcement method is mainly applied. Therefore, the deep cement mixing (DCM) method, which is one of the ground reinforcement foundations that replaces the PHC piles and secures structural safety suitable for the greenhouse foundation, was considered. To verify the structural safety of the DCM method, a geotechnical survey and soil test were conducted, and a long-term settlement monitoring system was established. The specifications of the DCM foundation were designed to be 0.8 m in diameter, 3 m × 3 m in width and length, and 3 m in depth. Based on the settlement monitoring data, long-term settlement was predicted considering the greenhouse durability of 15 years. For long-term settlement prediction, the Log S–T, hyperbolic, Asaoka method, Schmertmann theory, and the finite element method (FEM) analysis were performed. In the case of the Log S–T, hyperbolic, and Asaoka method based on actual measurement data, the settlement amount was predicted to be 12.18~20.43 mm, and in the case of the Schmertmann empirical formula, it was predicted to be 19.66 m. The FEM analysis result was 8.89 mm. As the most conservative result, the DCM foundation method designed in this paper had an allowable bearing capacity of 310 kN/m² and a long-term settlement of 20.43 mm. This is the result of satisfying both the allowable bearing capacity of 100 kN/m² and the allowable settlement range of 25.4 mm as a foundation. Through this study, it was proven that long-term structural safety can be sufficiently secured when the DCM foundation is constructed on a soft ground through a design that considers the required service life and allowable bearing capacity of the structure. In addition, it was confirmed that the Hyperbolic, Asaoka, and FEM analysis method adopted in this paper can be applied to the long-term settlement behavior analysis of the DCM foundation method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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15 pages, 5179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toughness, Reinforcing Mechanism, and Durability of Hybrid Steel Fiber Reinforced Sulfoaluminate Cement Composites

by Kai Cui, Jun Chang, Mohanad Muayad Sabri Sabri and Jiandong Huang

Buildings 2022, 12(8), 1243; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081243 - 15 Aug 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1893

Abstract

As a low-carbon ecological cement-based material, SAC (sulfoaluminate cement) has become a research hotspot. This study developed a SAC-based high-performance concrete material with good durability and high toughness. The mechanical properties of different scales of MSF (macro steel fiber) and mSF (micro steel fiber) reinforced sulfoaluminate cement-based composites were mainly studied, including their compressive strength, flexural strength, toughness index, and toughness ratio, and their resistance to sulfate erosion was characterized. The results show that adding MSF and HSF (hybrid steel fibers) can significantly improve concrete’s compressive and flexural strength compared with the Plain group. The compressive strength of SSF1 (1% MSF) and SSF2 (1.5% MSF) increased by 10.9%, 19.6%, and the compressive strength of HSF1 (0.1% mSF, 1.4% MSF), HSF2 (0.2% mSF, 1.3%MSF), HSF3 (0.3% mSF, 1.2% MSF), and HSF4 (0.5% mSF, 1.0% MSF) increased by 23.9%, 33.7%, 37.0%, 29.3%, respectively, while the flexural strength of HSF1, HSF2, HSF3, and HSF4 groups increased by 51.4%, 84.9%, 88.1%, and 64.2%. Compared with the single steel fiber (SSF) group, the HSF group has higher initial crack strength, equivalent flexural strength, toughness index, and toughness ratio. Hybrid fibers have a higher synergistic effect when mSF content is 0.2–0.3% and MSF content is 1.2–1.3%. The mechanism of multi-scale reinforcement of hybrid-steel-fiber-enhanced sulfoaluminate cement-based composites was researched. MSF bridges macro-cracks, mSF bridges micro-cracks, and these two different scales of steel fibers, through filling, bridging, anchoring, pulling off, and pulling out, improve the toughness of composite materials. The mechanism of sulfate corrosion resistance of sulfoaluminate cement-based composites was obtained. SO₄²⁻ entered the matrix and reacted and formed AFt, filling the matrix’s pores. The whole process is similar to the self-healing process of concrete. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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17 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Axial Load Enhancement of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete (LAC) Using Environmentally Sustainable Composites

by Suniti Suparp, Nazam Ali, Ahmed W. Al Zand, Krisada Chaiyasarn, Muhammad Usman Rashid, Ekkachai Yooprasertchai, Qudeer Hussain and Panuwat Joyklad

Buildings 2022, 12(6), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12060851 - 17 Jun 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2200

Abstract

Salient features of lightweight aggregate concrete (LAC) include noticeable fire resistance, high strength-to-weight ratio, and low magnitude of dead loads. Further, LAC has a low cost, eases construction practices, and possesses an environment-friendly nature. On the downside, LAC has substandard mechanical properties in comparison to normal aggregate concrete. Natural fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) have shown their potential in ameliorating the mechanical properties of natural aggregate concrete. So far, no study has been conducted to assess the efficacy of hemp rope confinement to strengthen lightweight aggregate concrete especially comprising rectilinear sections. This study aimed to overcome the substandard nature of LAC. A low-cost, sustainable, and environmentally green solution in the form of natural hemp rope layers is proposed. Twenty-four square concrete specimens were tested in three groups depending upon the presence and quantity of lightweight aggregates. It was found that concrete constructed with lightweight aggregates demonstrated lower ultimate compressive strength and strain as compared to normal aggregate concrete. Hemp rope-confined LAC showed enhanced ultimate compressive strength and strain. This enhancement was found to increase with the number of hemp rope layers. Several existing ultimate stress models were assessed to predict the ultimate compressive strength of the hemp rope-confined specimens. Only a single model was able to predict the ultimate compressive strength of the hemp rope-confined specimens with reasonable accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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16 pages, 3487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compressive Strength Prediction of Fly Ash Concrete Using Machine Learning Techniques

by Yimin Jiang, Hangyu Li and Yisong Zhou

Buildings 2022, 12(5), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12050690 - 22 May 2022

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 2824

Abstract

It is time-consuming and uneconomical to estimate the strength properties of fly ash concrete using conventional compression experiments. For this reason, four machine learning models—extreme learning machine, random forest, original support vector regression (SVR), and the SVR model optimized by a grid search algorithm—were proposed to predict the compressive strength of fly ash concrete on 270 group datasets. The prediction results of the proposed model were compared using five evaluation indices, and the relative importance and effect of each input variable on the output compressive strength were analyzed. The results showed that the optimized hybrid model showed the best predictive behavior compared to the other three models, and can be used to forecast the compressive strength of fly ash concrete at a specific mix design ratio before conducting laboratory compression tests, which will save costs on the specimens and laboratory tests. Among the eight input variables listed, age and water were the two relatively most important features with superplasticizer and fly ash being of weaker relative importance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Performance of Building Materials)

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