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Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects

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A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Diversity".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 March 2023) | Viewed by 31202

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Carlos Barceló

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Guest Editor

Applied Zoology and Animal Conservation Research Group, Department of Biology, University of the Balearic Islands (UIB), 07122 Palma, Spain
Interests: applied entomology, arthropod vector ecology; bluetongue; Culicoides; invasive species; mosquitoes; entomology surveillance; vector-borne diseases

Dr. Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Center for Rickettsioses and Arthropod-Borne Diseases, Hospital Universitario San Pedro–CIBIR, 26006 Logroño, Spain
Interests: entomology surveillance; medical and veterinary entomology; mosquitoes; one health; public health; Simuliidae; vector-borne diseases

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Several hematophagous insects, including mosquitoes, biting midges, sand flies, and black flies, are able to transmit pathogens of veterinary and public health concern. There is a great diversity of blood-sucking insects, e.g., more than 3500 mosquito species and 2400 black fly species worldwide, with new species being discovered every year.

Immature stages and adults of this insects play an important role in the ecosystems since they are included in the diet of aquatic and insectivorous fauna; therefore, the diversity of these groups must be considered to understand their importance in ecosystem food webs. In addition, knowledge about their distribution, abundance, and phenology of vector insects is crucial to improve understanding of epidemiologic events and to manage control strategies as a way of preventing future disease outbreaks.

The phylogeny of insect vectors is also another issue to consider since phylogenetic studies help us to establish species delimitations, determine sibling species, and solve species boundaries. The One Health concept, supported by the World Health Organisation (WHO), states that public health is influenced by the environment, whether it is interconnected by public, domestic, or wildlife health. Climate change and globalization may impact the distribution and diversity of vector insects. Therefore, the expansion of their distribution range, due to the increase in temperature, the introduction of invasive species through public transport, or movements of breeding sites provoked by deforestation, enhances the impact on the distribution of vector species.

Dr. Carlos Barceló
Dr. Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

blood-sucking insects
Culicidae
Culicoides
climate change
community structure
environment
geographical dispersal
mosquitoes
One Health
Phlebotominae
phylogenetic analysis
spatial and temporal distribution
sand-flies
species richness
Simuliidae

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 187 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects

by Carlos Barceló and Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo

Diversity 2024, 16(2), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16020095 - 1 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1497

Abstract

Mosquitoes (Fam. Culicidae), sand flies (Subfam. Phlebotominae), biting midges
(Fam. Ceratopogonidae), black flies (Fam. Simuliidae) and stable flies (Fam. Muscidae) are groups of insects capable to transmit pathogens of public health and veterinary importance [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

17 pages, 2756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Species Composition and Population Dynamics of Culicidae during their Peak Abundance Period in Three Peri-Urban Aquatic Ecosystems in Northern Spain

by Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo, Pedro María Alarcón-Elbal, Laura Blanco-Sierra, Sarah Delacour-Estrella, Ignacio de Blas and José A. Oteo

Diversity 2023, 15(8), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15080938 - 18 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1453

Abstract

For a better understanding of the transmission cycles of mosquito-borne diseases, it is essential to explore the species composition and population dynamics, mainly during their peak abundance period. These investigations do not normally include peri-urban areas, despite their significant epidemiological interest. To address these gaps, an entomological survey was carried out in 2016 and 2017 in three aquatic ecosystems located on the outskirts of the city of Logroño, in northern Spain: the Iregua River and La Grajera (La Rioja) and Las Cañas Reservoirs (Navarra). Mosquitoes were captured using BG-Sentinel traps baited with CO₂ and BG-lure, as well as through the human landing collection method. In total, 6793 mosquito specimens were captured, representing 24 taxa within six genera. A specific PCR based on the ITS2 gene was used to differentiate members of the Anopheles claviger complex, and all individuals were identified as An. claviger sensu stricto. La Grajera had the most diverse culicid fauna, with 19 taxa, followed by Las Cañas (n = 15) and the Iregua River (n = 13). The composition and abundance of Culicidae varied across the aquatic ecosystem. We observed that the different hydrological management practices of each environment could play a key role in determining the abundance of mosquito genera. The overall risk of mosquito bites in the study area is expected to be relatively low and will depend on the freshwater ecosystem and the time of year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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12 pages, 3120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coexistence and Spatial Distribution of Invasive and Sylvatic Container-Breeding Mosquitoes in City–Forest Ecotone within the Brazilian Semi-arid

by Hosana Rosa-Silva, Julia G. Cardoso, Ronaldo Reis-Júnior, Paulo H. C. Corgosinho, Maurício L. Faria, Sérvio P. Ribeiro, Filipe V. S. Abreu, Pablo Cuevas-Reyes and Magno A. Z. Borges

Diversity 2023, 15(7), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15070822 - 29 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1390

Abstract

Aedes species are vectors of the most significant arboviruses in Brazil with the greatest health and economic impact in the country. However, little is known about the factors that influence the distribution of Aedes, as well as other container-breeding mosquitoes, especially on the border between urban and forest environments. Here, we tested the effect of three phytophysiognomies within the city–forest ecotone in the Brazilian semi-arid region on the spatial distribution of vector mosquitoes. We also investigated the effect of rainfall on the spatial distribution and abundance of mosquitoes and described the interspecific interactions between invasive and native mosquito species. Immatures were sampled during the rainy seasons of 2019–2020 (October 2019 to February 2020) and 2020–2021 (November 2020 to February 2021). In each sampled location, 30 ovitraps were installed in shaded areas. There was a predominance of the Aedes mosquitoes, especially Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti, while three species of Haemagogus (Hg. spegazzinii, Hg. janthinomys and Hg. leucocelaenus) were rarely found. The sylvatic mosquito Ae. terrens was abundant in areas with lower anthropic influence and during higher rainfall regimes with minimal pluviometric variation. This rainfall was also favorable for the presence of the predatory mosquito larvae Toxorhynchites theobaldi. The abundance of invasive Aedes species showed positive correlations with each other and negative correlations with the sylvatic Ae. terrens. Our results demonstrate that human occupation and the rainfall regime affect the interactions between invasive and sylvatic species of container mosquitoes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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17 pages, 1351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Conventional Multiplex PCR Assays for the Identification of 21 West Palaearctic Biting Midge Taxa (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Belonging to the Culicoides Subgenus Culicoides, including Recently Discovered Species and Genetic Variants

by Oliver Dähn, Doreen Werner, Bruno Mathieu and Helge Kampen

Diversity 2023, 15(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15060699 - 24 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1744

Abstract

In 2006 and 2011, two biting-midge-borne arboviruses of high veterinary importance emerged for the first time in Central Europe: bluetongue virus (BTV) and Schmallenberg virus (SBV). Members of the native Obsoletus and Pulicaris Groups were soon identified as the potential vectors. However, despite several years of extensive taxonomic research on these groups, correct species identification and differentiation from closely related species are still challenging due to isomorphic features, the existence of cryptic species and obsolete PCR identification assays. At present, 17 valid West Palaearctic biting midge species of the Culicoides subgenus Culicoides, including the Pulicaris Group, are known, and additional genetic variants have been described. For many of them, no identification tests are available, and their roles in disease transmission have remained unknown. In this study, 465 GenBank DNA sequence entries of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene were used to design PCR primers as specific genetic markers for 21 West Palaearctic biting midge taxa of the Culicoides subgenus Culicoides. During their validation with DNA from field-collected biting midges and synthetic DNA from biting midge genotypes not available from the field, all primers detected their target taxa, while few showed cross-reactions. Our results indicate the great potential of the new primers in PCR assays and clearly demonstrate the suitability of the COI gene as an excellent marker for the identification of different biting midge species and genetic variants of the Culicoides subgenus Culicoides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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26 pages, 7560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mosquitoes of Querétaro, Mexico: Distribution, Ecology, and Discovery of Shannoniana huasteca n. sp. (Diptera: Culicidae)

by Aldo I. Ortega-Morales, Luis M. Hernández-Triana and Quetzaly K. Siller-Rodríguez

Diversity 2023, 15(6), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15060697 - 23 May 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2916

Abstract

In order to document the diversity and distribution of mosquitoes inhabiting the Querétaro State of México, collection trips were conducted in all physiographic regions and sub-regions of the state (Sierra Madre Oriental, Central Plateau, and Neo-Volcanic Axis). In addition, mosquito specimens collected in Querétaro and deposited in the Collection of Arthropods of Medical Importance (CAIM) were re-examined. A total of 2718 specimens (570 larvae, 384 larval exuviae, 537 pupal exuviae, 30 pupae, 807 females, 368 males, and 22 male genitalia) were analyzed. In total, 2 subfamilies, namely Anophelinae and Culicinae, 5 tribes, 12 genera, 20 subgenera, and 50 species were found. Of these, 3 tribes, 8 genera, 11 subgenera, and 33 species are new records for the mosquito fauna of Querétaro. Two undescribed species were found, and one of them, Shannoniana huasteca Ortega n. sp., is described here using morphology and Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) DNA barcoding. Taxonomic notes, new distribution limits, comments about the medical importance of species, and a key to identify adult females of Shannoniana species are provided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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9 pages, 1237 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Seasonal and Nocturnal Activity of Culicoides spp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Adapted to Different Environments in the Balearic Islands

by Carlos Barceló, Ricardo del Río and Miguel A. Miranda

Diversity 2023, 15(5), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050690 - 20 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1632

Abstract

Several pathogens are known to be transmitted by arthropods. One of the most relevant, in economic terms, affecting animals is bluetongue virus. Its known vectors are several species of Culicoides midges. In Europe, the considered main vector species are Culicoides imicola and Culicoides obsoletus, though other species may be implicated at different levels. In the present work, the activity of these vector species between sunset and sunrise from May to November is analyzed according to their captures in a rotator bottle collector adapted to a light trap. Additionally, the Culicoides populations of two areas in Mallorca (Spain) with different characteristics (rural vs. urban) are compared. The results indicated that June is the month of higher abundance of C. obsoletus in our climatic conditions—being active during the first three hours after sunset. Conversely, C. imicola reached the maximum level of captures during October, and captures were more evenly distributed during the night. Collections from the two areas revealed that Culicoides populations were composed by the same species; however, abundance and sex ratio presented marked differences. These results add valuable insight into the ecology of Culicoides and may be used to design more accurate strategies to control diseases associated with Culicoides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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17 pages, 2924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DNA Barcoding of Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Slovakia and Its Utility for Species Identification

by Tatiana Kúdelová, Samuel Krčmárik, Ivona Lužáková, Bibiana Bujačková, Karin Matická and Matúš Kúdela

Diversity 2023, 15(5), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050661 - 13 May 2023

Viewed by 1954

Abstract

DNA barcoding based on the cytochrome oxidase I gene is increasingly used in black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae), but extensive data for larger areas are still rare. Slovakia, with well-explored black fly fauna, was chosen to verify the reliability of DNA barcoding for species identification. The DNA barcoding region of the COI gene of 235 individuals of 25 black fly species from Slovakia was sequenced. Among them, 30 sequence clusters with assigned Barcode Index Numbers (BINs) were identified, and 5 of them were recorded for the first time. The average intraspecific genetic divergence was 0–3.24%, whereas the average interspecific divergence was 12.3–17.8%. Based on the barcode sequence, 14 species could be identified unambiguously, and 3 of them (Prosimulium latimucro, Simulium costatum, S. degrangei) are split into two or more barcode clusters. In eleven species, some degree of barcode sharing occurred, often combined with barcode splitting. The results showed hidden diversity as well as cases of shared barcode sequences among the studied species. Further investigation using other molecular markers is necessary due to the overlap of intraspecific and interspecific variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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9 pages, 8376 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

First Record of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perfiliewi (Diptera: Psychodidae), Vector of Leishmania infantum and Phleboviruses, in Spain

by Mikel A. González, Ignacio Ruiz-Arrondo, Rafael Gutiérrez-López, Carlos Barceló and Miguel Á. Miranda

Diversity 2023, 15(3), 400; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030400 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2329

Abstract

Phlebotomine sand flies are vectors of several diseases of importance for public health, including leishmaniosis, bartonellosis, and sand fly fevers. An entomological survey on blood-feeding Diptera was conducted in June–November 2020–2021 to know the diversity of insect vectors in Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Among the vectors collected, Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perfiliewi Parrot, 1930 was found being the first record of this species in Spain. Phlebotomus perfiliewi s.l. is one of the main vectors of Leishmania infantum in the Mediterranean Basin and Central Asia. The identification of this species was confirmed by both morphological features and DNA barcoding. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the specimens captured were Ph. perfiliewi s.s. (99.85–100% homologues from Italy and Algeria specimens), with a sequence divergence of 0.17%. The cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene clearly separates the three species that make up the Ph. perfiliewi species complex. In addition, we also provide a brief discussion about their identification remarks, phylogenetic relationships, and vector status. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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17 pages, 2885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

North–South Differentiation of Black Flies in the Western Cordillera of North America: A New Species of Prosimulium (Diptera: Simuliidae)

by Peter H. Adler and Will K. Reeves

Diversity 2023, 15(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15020212 - 2 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1777

Abstract

Glaciation has been a powerful determiner of species distributions and the genetic structure of populations. Contemporary distributions of many organisms in North America’s Western Cordillera reflect the influence of Pleistocene glaciation. We identified a pattern of north–south differentiation in the genus Prosimulium of western North America, which reflects the separation of northern and southern populations by the North American Ice Sheet during the Pleistocene Epoch. The taxonomic implication is that new species exist within nominal species, requiring formal description or revalidation of names currently in synonymy. We morphologically and cytogenetically examined populations of one nominal species of black fly, Prosimulium esselbaughi Sommerman, over its known range from Alaska south to California and Colorado. Chromosomal and morphological evidence supports the presence of two species, P. esselbaughi sensu stricto from Alaska to at least southern British Columbia, and a new species, Prosimulium supernum in the central Rocky Mountains and high Sierra Nevada range of the United States. The new species is described in all life stages above the egg, along with its polytene chromosomes. The existence of differentiated populations of other nominal species of black flies in northern and southern North America provides a system for investigating possible co-differentiation of vectors and parasites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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30 pages, 9852 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Molecular Characterization Using Genitalia and CoxI Barcode Sequence Analysis of Afrotropical Mosquitoes with Arbovirus Vector Potential

by Eddyson Montalvo-Sabino, Ana Paula Abílio, Milehna Mara Guarido, Vera Valadas, Maria Teresa Novo, Ayubo Kampango, Carla Alexandra Sousa, José Fafetine, Marietjie Venter, Peter N. Thompson, Leo Braack, Anthony John Cornel, Ricardo Parreira and António Paulo Gouveia de Almeida

Diversity 2022, 14(11), 940; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14110940 - 2 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3732

Abstract

Potential arboviral Afrotropical mosquito vectors are underrepresented in public databases of CoxI barcode sequences. Furthermore, available CoxI sequences for many species are often not associated with voucher specimens to match the corresponding fine morphological characterization of specimens. Hence, this study focused on the characterization of Culicine mosquitoes from South Africa, Mozambique, and Angola and their classification using a complementary approach including a morphological analysis of specimens’ genitalia and phylogenetic study based on the analysis of CoxI barcode sequences using maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic inference methods, alongside Median-Joining Network and PCOORD analyses. Overall, 800 mosquitoes (652 males and 148 females) from 67 species, were analyzed. Genitalia from 663 specimens allowed the identification of 55 species of 10 genera. A total of 247 CoxI partial gene sequences corresponding to 65 species were obtained, 11 of which (Aedes capensis, Ae. mucidus, Culex andersoni, Cx. telesilla, Cx. inconspicuosus, Eretmapodites subsimplicipes, Er. quinquevittatus, Ficalbia uniformis, Mimomyia hispida, Uranotaenia alboabdominalis, and Ur. mashonaensis) are, to the best of our knowledge, provided here for the first time. The presence of Cx. pipiens ecotypes molestus and pipiens and their hybrids, as well as Cx. infula, is newly reported in the Afrotropical region. The rates of correct sequence identification using BOLD and BLASTn (≥95% identity) were 64% and 53%, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that, except for subgenus Eumelanomyia of Culex, there was support for tribes Aedini, Culicini, Ficalbiini, and Mansoniini. A divergence >2% was observed in conspecific sequences, e.g., Aedeomyia africana, Ae. cumminsii, Ae. unilineatus, Ae. metallicus, Ae. furcifer, Ae. caballus, and Mansonia uniformis. Conversely, sequences from groups and species complexes, namely, Ae. simpsoni, Ae. mcintoshi, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. simpsoni, and Cx. pipiens were insufficiently separated. A contribution has been made to the barcode library of Afrotropical mosquitoes with associated genitalia morphological identifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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9 pages, 1694 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Anopheles maculipennis Complex in The Netherlands: First Record of Anopheles daciae (Diptera: Culicidae)

by A. Ibáñez-Justicia, Nathalie Smitz, Rody Blom, Ann Vanderheyden, Frans Jacobs, Kenny Meganck, Sophie Gombeer, Thierry Backeljau, Constantianus J. M. Koenraadt, J. S. Griep, Marc De Meyer and Arjan Stroo

Diversity 2022, 14(8), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14080636 - 10 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2870

Abstract

Despite their past importance as vectors of indigenous malaria, the species composition and spatial distribution of the members of the Anopheles maculipennis complex have been studied to a limited extent in the Netherlands. Therefore, this investigation focuses on the distribution of the members of this complex in the Netherlands, including Anopheles daciae, which has recently been found in countries bordering the Netherlands. In the framework of a national mosquito surveillance between 2010 and 2021, a total of 541 specimens of An. maculipennis s.l. were analyzed from 161 locations covering the entire territory. In addition, 89 specimens were analyzed from overwintering sites during the winter of 2020/2021. All individual mosquitoes were identified to species-level using Sanger sequencing of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2. To characterize the habitat of An. maculipennis s.l. in the Netherlands, land cover use data was extracted in a 1 km buffer area around each finding location. For populations collected in summers between 2010 and 2021, the most frequent species was An. messeae, present in 88.19% of the locations, followed by An. maculipennis s.s. (11.80%), An. atroparvus (3.72%) and An. daciae (3.72%). Anopheles daciae was found in the southern inland areas of the country. Furthermore, An. messeae and An. daciae occurred in sympatry at overwintering sites. This study provides relevant information on the occurrence of species of the Anopheles maculipennis complex in the Netherlands, contributing to a better estimation of the risk of mosquito-borne disease in the country. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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12 pages, 1818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DNA Identification and Diversity of the Vector Mosquitoes Culex pipiens s.s. and Culex torrentium in Belgium (Diptera: Culicidae)

by Ann Vanderheyden, Nathalie Smitz, Katrien De Wolf, Isra Deblauwe, Wouter Dekoninck, Kenny Meganck, Sophie Gombeer, Adwine Vanslembrouck, Jacobus De Witte, Anna Schneider, Ingrid Verlé, Marc De Meyer, Thierry Backeljau, Ruth Müller and Wim Van Bortel

Diversity 2022, 14(6), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/d14060486 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3161

Abstract

This survey reports on the DNA identification and occurrence of Culex torrentium and Cx. pipiens s.s. in Belgium. These native disease-vector mosquito species are morphologically difficult to separate, and the biotypes of Cx. pipiens s.s. are morphologically indistinguishable. Culex torrentium and Cx. pipiens s.s. were identified using the COI and ACE2 loci. We recorded 1248 Cx. pipiens s.s. and 401 Cx. torrentium specimens from 24 locations in Belgium (collected between 2017 and 2019). Culex pipiens biotypes pipiens and molestus, and their hybrids, were differentiated using fragment-size analysis of the CQ11 locus (956 pipiens and 227 molestus biotype specimens, 29 hybrids). Hybrids were observed at 13 out of 16 sympatric sites. These results confirm that both species are widespread in Belgium, but while Cx. torrentium revealed many COI haplotypes, Cx. pipiens s.s. showed only one abundant haplotype. This latter observation may either reflect a recent population-wide demographic or range expansion, or a recent bottleneck, possibly linked to a Wolbachia infection. Finally, new evidence is provided for the asymmetric but limited introgression of the molestus biotype into the pipiens biotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

10 pages, 2926 KiB

Open AccessReview

Global Diversity, Distribution, and Genetic Studies of Stable Flies (Stomoxys sp.)

by Gérard Duvallet and Jerome A. Hogsette

Diversity 2023, 15(5), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15050600 - 28 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2756

Abstract

In the subfamily Stomoxyinae there are currently 18 recognized Stomoxys species, plus two subspecies. Most Stomoxys knowledge was gained through studies with S. calcitrans, a cosmopolitan species, economic pest, and vector. Other Stomoxys spp. are known only from a few trapped adult specimens. Herein, the Stomoxys spp. have been grouped by their ecological diversity, global distribution, and phylogeny and phylogeography. Seven species are dependent to some degree on humans and their activities, particularly animal production. Eleven species are dependent on wildlife to some degree for their development, and little is known about their biology in many cases. Global distributions include one cosmopolitan species (S. calcitrans), twelve species found only in Africa, four species only in Asia, and one species (S. sitiens) in Africa and Asia. Most genetic studies on Stomoxys calcitrans showed little variation in North America, possibly due to the adults’ long range flight capability. Phylogeographic analysis of S. calcitrans showed a differentiation between Oriental populations (first lineage) and populations from Afrotropical, Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical and Oceanian regions (second lineage). Genetic studies were followed by sequencing of the Stomoxys calcitrans genome and phylogenetic studies of the Stomoxys genus using 10 of the known species. Phylogenetic relationships were established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Distribution and Phylogeny of Vector Insects)

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