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Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "H: Geo-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2024) | Viewed by 23347

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xixin Wang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Geo-Sciences, Yangtze University, Wuhan 451199, China
Interests: reservoir modeling; fracture characterization; reservoir prediction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Xiaoyue Cao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Key Laboratory of Exploration Technologies for Oil and Gas Resource, Yangtze University, Wuhan 102249, China
Interests: computational geophysics; inversion theory; electrical anisotropy
Dr. Xun Zhong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Petroleum Engineering, Yangtze University, Wuhan 102249, China
Interests: enhanced oil recovery; rock characterization

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

With the continuous development of oil and gas fields, the water cut increases gradually. The focus of oil and gas exploration and development is how to find remaining oil and further enhance oil recovery. The study of sand body architecture plays an important role in controlling the distribution of remaining oil in the reservoir at the later stage of oil and gas field development.

Experts from all over the world have conducted a great deal of research on the architecture interpretation of different types of sediment, and have also achieved rich research results. This is mainly reflected in the construction of architecture models of different sedimentary types, the architecture interpretation of alluvial fans, deep-water gravity flow and other sedimentary bodies, and the acquisition and processing of outcrop digital data based on UAV tilt photography. With the rise of artificial intelligence, big data and other fields, more advanced methods and means have been applied to reservoir architecture interpretation and modelling.

This Special Issue aims to collate articles relating to architecture interpretation based on logging and seismic data, AI architecture prediction, multipoint geostatistical architecture modelling, interpretation of outcrop architecture, architecture characteristics of modern sediment, and architecture mode. Original research and review articles are welcome.

Dr. Xixin Wang
Dr. Xiaoyue Cao
Dr. Xun Zhong
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • the architecture interpretation technique of outcrop
  • processing and interpretation of ancient/modern sedimentary data based on UAV tilt photography
  • cognition of architecture pattern
  • multipoint geostatistical modeling
  • architecture interpretation based on multidimensional data.

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Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 9181 KiB  
Article
A Method for Enhancing the Simulation Continuity of the Snesim Algorithm in 2D Using Multiple Search Trees
by Chuanyou Zhou, Yongming He, Lu Wang, Shaohua Li, Siyu Yu, Yisheng Liu and Wei Dong
Energies 2024, 17(5), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051022 - 22 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 917
Abstract
Multiple-point geostatistics (MPS) has more advantages than two-point geostatistics in reproducing the continuity of geobodies in subsurface reservoir modeling. For fluvial reservoir modeling, the more continuous a channel, the more consistent it is with geological knowledge in general, and fluvial continuity is also [...] Read more.
Multiple-point geostatistics (MPS) has more advantages than two-point geostatistics in reproducing the continuity of geobodies in subsurface reservoir modeling. For fluvial reservoir modeling, the more continuous a channel, the more consistent it is with geological knowledge in general, and fluvial continuity is also of paramount importance when simulating fluid flow. Based on the pixel-based MPS algorithm Snesim, this study proposes a method that utilizes multiple search trees (MSTs) to enhance simulation continuity in 2D fluvial reservoir modeling. The objective of the MST method is to capture complete data events from a training image (TI), which aims to achieve enhanced continuity in fluvial reservoir sublayer modeling. By resorting to search neighborhoods based on their proximity to the central node of the data template, multiple data templates that correspond to the MSTs will be generated. Here, four data templates were generated by arranging the relative search neighborhood coordinates in ascending and descending order with respect to the central node. Parallel computing was tried for the construction of the search trees. This work calculated the conditional probability distribution function (CPDF) of the simulating nodes by averaging the CPDFs derived from the MSTs, and double retrieval was employed to filter out the search trees that possessed an inaccurate local CPDF for the simulating nodes. In addition, the connected component labeling (CCL) method was introduced to evaluate the simulation continuity in MPS. The results indicated that the MST method can enhance the simulation continuity of the Snesim algorithm by reproducing the fine connectivity of channel facies in 2D fluvial reservoir modeling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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16 pages, 12603 KiB  
Article
A New Model for Predicting Permeability of Chang 7 Tight Sandstone Based on Fractal Characteristics from High-Pressure Mercury Injection
by Yuxuan Yang, Zhigang Wen, Weichao Tian, Yunpeng Fan and Heting Gao
Energies 2024, 17(4), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17040821 - 8 Feb 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 810
Abstract
Accurately predicting permeability is important to elucidate the fluid mobility and development potential of tight reservoirs. However, for tight sandstones with the same porosity, permeability can change by nearly three orders of magnitude, which greatly increases the difficulty of permeability prediction. In this [...] Read more.
Accurately predicting permeability is important to elucidate the fluid mobility and development potential of tight reservoirs. However, for tight sandstones with the same porosity, permeability can change by nearly three orders of magnitude, which greatly increases the difficulty of permeability prediction. In this paper, we performed casting thin section, scanning electron microscopy and high-pressure mercury injection experiments to analyze the influence of pore structure parameters and fractal dimensions on the permeability of Chang 7 tight sandstones. Furthermore, the key parameters affecting the permeability were optimized, and a new permeability prediction model was established. The results show that the pore throat structure of Chang 7 tight sandstone exhibits three-stage fractal characteristics. Thus, the pore throat structure was divided into large pore throat, medium pore throat and small pore throat. The large pore throat reflects the microfracture system, whose fractal dimension was distributed above 2.99, indicating that the heterogeneity of the large pore throat was the strongest. The medium pore throat is dominated by the conventional pore throat system, and its fractal dimension ranged from 2.378 to 2.997. Small pore throats are mainly composed of the tree-shaped pore throat system, and its fractal dimension varied from 2.652 to 2.870. The medium pore throat volume and its fractal dimension were key factors affecting the permeability of Chang 7 tight sandstones. A new permeability prediction model was established based on the medium pore throat volume and its fractal dimension. Compared to other models, the prediction results of the new model are the best according to the analysis of root mean square value, average absolute percentage error and correlation coefficient. These results indicate that the permeability of tight sandstones can be accurately predicted using mesopore throat volume and fractal dimension. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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14 pages, 4133 KiB  
Article
Comprehensive Study on Microscopic Pore Structure and Displacement Mechanism of Tight Sandstone Reservoirs: A Case Study of the Chang 3 Member in the Weibei Oilfield, Ordos Basin, China
by Ying Tang, Ruifei Wang and Shuai Yin
Energies 2024, 17(2), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020370 - 11 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 849
Abstract
With the continuous growth in global energy demand, research and development of unconventional oil and gas reservoirs have become crucial in the field of energy. This study focuses on the Chang 3 reservoir of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, Weibei Oilfield, [...] Read more.
With the continuous growth in global energy demand, research and development of unconventional oil and gas reservoirs have become crucial in the field of energy. This study focuses on the Chang 3 reservoir of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, Weibei Oilfield, China. This reservoir is a typical tight sandstone reservoir, and its microscopic pore structure and displacement mechanism are essential for the efficient development of tight oil. However, the reservoir faces challenges such as complex microscopic pore structures and unclear displacement mechanisms, which hinder the efficient development of tight oil. In light of these challenges, through various studies including core observation, high-pressure mercury injection tests, water flooding experiments, oil-water two-phase relative permeability measurements, and stress sensitivity experiments, it was found that the Chang 3 reservoir exhibits strong microscopic heterogeneity. The pore-throat distribution characteristics mainly present two types: single peak and double peak, with the double peak type being predominant. The reservoir was classified and evaluated based on these characteristics. The improved injection ratio and properties enhance oil displacement efficiency, but an increase in irreducible water saturation has a negative impact on efficiency. The stress sensitivity of the reservoir fluctuates between weak and strong, with permeability being sensitive to net confining pressure. It is recommended to pay particular attention to the stress-sensitivity characteristics during reservoir development. The research results provide a scientific basis for the optimized development of tight oil reservoirs in this region, promote the sustainable development of unconventional oil and gas resources, and have significant theoretical and practical implications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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18 pages, 15592 KiB  
Article
Architectural Characteristics and Distribution Patterns of Gravity Flow Channels in Faulted Lake Basins: A Case Study of the Shahejie Formation in the Banqiao Oilfield, China
by Zhuang Liang, Yuming Liu, Qi Chen, Haowei Zhang and Jiagen Hou
Energies 2024, 17(2), 322; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17020322 - 9 Jan 2024
Viewed by 927
Abstract
Internal depositional architecture and sand body distribution are the main challenges faced in the development of gravity flow channel deposits in China. Despite significant progress in the exploration and development of gravity flow deposits in recent years, our understanding of the internal architecture [...] Read more.
Internal depositional architecture and sand body distribution are the main challenges faced in the development of gravity flow channel deposits in China. Despite significant progress in the exploration and development of gravity flow deposits in recent years, our understanding of the internal architecture of composite sand bodies within gravity flow channels is still limited. Gravity flow channels represent a widely developed sedimentary type in the Shahejie Formation of the Banqiao Oilfield, Huanghua Depression. The lack of understanding of the spatial stacking relationship of gravity flow channel sand bodies hinders further development and remaining oil recovery within the oilfield. Through this study, we aimed to dissect the composite channels (5th architectural units) and single channels (4th architectural units) at the study area, using a combination of well logs and seismic data. We explored the identification criteria and spatial distribution characteristics of internal architectural elements within gravity flow channel reservoirs, based on abundant drilling data, well density grids, and 3D seismic data. By identifying and delineating single channels, we were able to summarize six identification criteria for single channels, including relative elevation differences, curve shapes, and the number of interbeds. We obtained the sand body scale and aspect ratio of single channels and established three depositional architectural patterns, i.e., isolated, lateral migration, and vertical accretion, thus revealing the differences in the spatial stacking relationships of sand bodies in different structural locations (blocks). This work provides new insights into the depositional architectural patterns of gravity flow channel deposits in the Banqiao Oilfield, Huanghua Depression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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15 pages, 5198 KiB  
Article
Estimation of the Transverse Wave Velocity in Siliceous Carbonate Reservoirs of the Dengying Formation in the Gaoshiti–Moxi Area, Sichuan Basin, China
by Lian Xue, Zhengping Zhu, Xuebo Weng, Renfang Pan and Jinxiong Shi
Energies 2024, 17(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010135 - 26 Dec 2023
Viewed by 1015
Abstract
Siliceous minerals of the Dengying Formation in the Gaoshiti–Moxi area in the central Sichuan Basin exhibit four types of quartz crystals (cryptocrystalline quartz, chalcedony, microcrystalline quartz, and megacrystalline quartz) and three structural types: cryptocrystalline, microcrystalline, and mosaic (laminated mosaic, window-hole interrupted mosaic, and [...] Read more.
Siliceous minerals of the Dengying Formation in the Gaoshiti–Moxi area in the central Sichuan Basin exhibit four types of quartz crystals (cryptocrystalline quartz, chalcedony, microcrystalline quartz, and megacrystalline quartz) and three structural types: cryptocrystalline, microcrystalline, and mosaic (laminated mosaic, window-hole interrupted mosaic, and arc-laminated mosaic). Siliceous minerals have a great influence on the storage performance of the reservoirs in the Dengying Formation. According to the petrophysical parameters of the Dengying Formation and porosity intersection diagrams, the siliceous dolomite and the reservoirs have low impedance characteristics, which makes it difficult to distinguish between them and leads to difficulties in the characterization and prediction of the reservoirs. The transverse wave velocity is favorable for reservoir characterization. Currently, the main method used to estimate the transverse wave velocity is petrophysical modeling, which establishes a relationship between the elastic and physical parameters of the reservoir. In this paper, the siliceous minerals in the dolomite in the study area are regarded as solid inclusions, and the calculation method of the rock matrix modulus is improved by using solid replacement. Then, an improved petrophysical model is constructed by combining the KT (Kuster–Toksöz) model, the DEM (Discrete Element Method) model, the Gassmann equation, and the Wood equation. The transverse wave velocity is estimated using the improved model under the constraint of the longitudinal wave velocity. The shapes of the transverse wave velocity curves obtained by the improved model and the deviations from the measured velocities are significantly better than those of the Xu–Payne model and other models. The results show that the improved model can effectively estimate the transverse wave velocity of the reservoir in this area, which provides a basis for future reservoir predictions in this area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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18 pages, 26695 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Reservoir Architecture on the Connectivity of the Shahejie Formation in the Liuzhong Oilfield
by Tongfeng Cao, Jian Cui, Yingzheng He, Limin Ma, Wei Qiao and Yuming Liu
Energies 2024, 17(1), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17010115 - 24 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1314
Abstract
The lack of research on fine reservoir structure and sand body patterns in the Jidong Oilfield currently restricts the efficient development of the oilfield. Therefore, this article mainly focuses on the study of the main types of facies of the Shahejie Formation, sand [...] Read more.
The lack of research on fine reservoir structure and sand body patterns in the Jidong Oilfield currently restricts the efficient development of the oilfield. Therefore, this article mainly focuses on the study of the main types of facies of the Shahejie Formation, sand body splicing patterns, and the degree of sand-body connectivity. The interpretation and analysis of well-logging, three-dimensional (3D) seismic, and production data were used to lay the foundation for the study and evaluate the remaining oil distribution. The results indicate that the reservoir sandstones in the study area were mainly deposited in a submerged distributary channel, mouth bar, and distributary channel flank. Using logging information to identify individual sands, a deltaic sand assemblage pattern is proposed by analyzing the sedimentary architecture. In the vertical direction, the deltaic sand body collocation style can be divided into cut-and-stack and separated types. In the lateral direction, the multi-stage sand bodies exhibit three collocation patterns: the side-cutting type, the mouth bar contact type, and the submerged distributary channel flank contact type. The degree of sand-body connectivity under different splicing patterns was analyzed and verified using production dynamic data. It was found that the sand body splicing pattern with a vertical up-cut stack and the sand body splicing pattern with a lateral up-cut had the best inter-sand-body connectivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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18 pages, 59028 KiB  
Article
The Architecture Characterization of Braided River Reservoirs in the Presence of Horizontal Wells—An Application in a Tight Gas Reservoir in the North Ordos Basin, China
by Qi Chen, Yuming Liu, Ze Feng, Jiagen Hou, Lei Bao and Zhuang Liang
Energies 2023, 16(20), 7092; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16207092 - 14 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1405
Abstract
The study of the reservoir architecture in braided river systems has significant implications for the exploitation of remaining oil and gas reserves. However, due to the complexity of the braided river deposition process, the architecture patterns are diverse and intricate. Limited by the [...] Read more.
The study of the reservoir architecture in braided river systems has significant implications for the exploitation of remaining oil and gas reserves. However, due to the complexity of the braided river deposition process, the architecture patterns are diverse and intricate. Limited by the quality of seismic data and well network density, the characterization of underground reservoir architecture often entails considerable uncertainty. This paper investigates the architecture elements, stacking patterns, and significance of oil and gas development in the braided river deposition of the Jin 58 well area in the northern part of the Ordos Basin through typical field outcrop and core observations, and by making full use of horizontal well data. The study reveals that the Jin 58 well area is mainly characterized by four types of architecture units: braided channel, channel bar, overbank, and flood plain. Based on the data from horizontal and vertical wells, four identification criteria for single sand bodies are determined, and the vertical stacking and lateral juxtaposition styles of the architecture units, as well as the architecture patterns and internal features of the channel bar, are summarized. It is confirmed that composite sand bodies have better productivity. A three-dimensional architecture model of the braided river is established based on the results of architecture analysis. The accuracy of the architecture analysis is validated through numerical simulation, providing a basis for subsequent well deployment and other related activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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16 pages, 5086 KiB  
Article
Uncertainty Evaluation Based on Bayesian Transformations: Taking Facies Proportion as An Example
by Yangming Qiao, Shaohua Li and Wanbing Li
Energies 2023, 16(19), 6951; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16196951 - 5 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1045
Abstract
Many input parameters in reservoir modeling cannot be uniquely determined due to the incompleteness of data and the heterogeneity of the reservoir. Sedimentary facies modeling is a crucial part of reservoir modeling. The facies proportion is an important parameter affecting the modeling results, [...] Read more.
Many input parameters in reservoir modeling cannot be uniquely determined due to the incompleteness of data and the heterogeneity of the reservoir. Sedimentary facies modeling is a crucial part of reservoir modeling. The facies proportion is an important parameter affecting the modeling results, because that proportion directly determines the net gross ratio, reserves and sandbody connectivity. An uncertainty evaluation method based on Bayesian transformation is proposed to reduce the uncertainty of the facies proportion. According to the existing data and geological knowledge, the most probable value of the facies ratio and the prior distribution of uncertainty are estimated. The prior distribution of the facies proportion is divided into several intervals, and the proportions contained in each interval are used in facies modeling. Then, spatial resampling is carried out for each realization to obtain the likelihood estimation of the facies proportion. Finally, the posterior distribution of the facies ratio is achieved based on Bayesian transformation. The case study shows that the uncertainty interval of sandstone proportion in the study area has been reduced from [0.31, 0.59] to [0.35, 0.55], with a range reduction of 29%, indicating that the updated posterior distribution reduces the uncertainty of reservoir lithofacies proportion, thereby reducing the uncertainty of modeling results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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20 pages, 17396 KiB  
Article
Reconstruction of 3D Reservoir Lithological Model Using 2D Facies Profiles in SU 36-11 Area of Ordos Basin, China
by Lihua Cheng, Xueqian Pang and Yanshu Yin
Energies 2023, 16(12), 4708; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124708 - 14 Jun 2023
Viewed by 1296
Abstract
In the middle and late stages of gas field development, the establishment of a fine reservoir lithological model is an important basis for drilling well pattern adjustment and potential exploitation. The SU 36-11 area of the Ordos basin in China is developing braided [...] Read more.
In the middle and late stages of gas field development, the establishment of a fine reservoir lithological model is an important basis for drilling well pattern adjustment and potential exploitation. The SU 36-11 area of the Ordos basin in China is developing braided channel sediment with rich gas resources. However, the success rate of drilling wells is low due to the complex reservoir heterogeneity and the lack of a fine reservoir lithological model. In this paper, the complex internal structure of the reservoir sand body is revealed using the architectural element analysis method. Three sand body models, that is, isolated channel, superimposed channel, and cut superimposed channel, can be recognized. The effective sand body is mainly the channel bar deposit with a thickness of 2–5 m, a width of 200–500 m, a length of 400–700 m, a width ratio of 50–120, and a length-to-width ratio of 1.5–2. The 2D maps of the lithofacies (architectural elements) were then digitized to create 2D training images (TI) for the construction of the 3D model. The 2D data template was selected to scan the TI to obtain the 2D multi-point probability. The 3D multi-point probability was then generated using the probability fusion theory. The Monte Carlo sampling was used to predict the lithological type between wells. Finally, the 3D reservoir lithological model was built directly using the 2D lithological profiles. From the model, the geometry of the braided channel, channel bar, and flood plain was well revealed, and the spatial distribution of effective reservoir sand bodies was accurately predicted. The cross-validation test shows that the error of the channel bar is 6.5% on average, which improves the accuracy of the prediction of lithology in the sub-surface and can be used to guide the subsequent development of residual gas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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15 pages, 39029 KiB  
Article
Interpretation of Sand Body Architecture in Complex Fault Block Area of Craton Basin: Case Study of TIII in Sangtamu Area, Tarim Basin
by Chao Wang, Chunjing Yan, Zhengjun Zhu, Shaohua Li, Duanchuan Lv, Xixin Wang and Dawang Liu
Energies 2023, 16(8), 3454; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083454 - 14 Apr 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1576
Abstract
The complex fault block oilfields in the craton basin contain vast reserves of oil and gas resources. During the development of an oilfield, the flow of oil, gas, and water, is controlled by faults and configuration boundaries. The distribution of remaining oil and [...] Read more.
The complex fault block oilfields in the craton basin contain vast reserves of oil and gas resources. During the development of an oilfield, the flow of oil, gas, and water, is controlled by faults and configuration boundaries. The distribution of remaining oil and gas depends on the interpretation of the reservoir’s architecture. However, recognizing the faults and the architecture boundary remains a challenge, hindering the efficient development of these resources. This study proposes a new idea for interpreting the configuration of thick sand bodies. This study was conducted in order to interpret the fine architecture of thick sand bodies in the Sangtamu area, using core samples, well logging, and production data, guided by sedimentation patterns from ancient to modern times. Results indicate that the Sangtamu area is a braided river delta front sedimentary system, dominated by the backbone underwater distributary channel and branch-type underwater distributary channels. The backbone channel is larger in scale, with a relatively large rock grain size and a box-shaped logging curve, whereas the smaller-scale branch channels have a bell-shaped logging curve resulting from the gradual weakening of water energy. Sandstone bodies from different types of underwater distributary channels are spatially overlapped, forming thick plate-like sandstones. The architecture interface between channels can be used as the fluid seepage boundary and can help prevent bottom water intrusion to a certain extent. The remaining oil is primarily concentrated in the architecture boundary area, which presents the next potential tapping area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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14 pages, 7277 KiB  
Article
A Deep Learning Method for Facies Recognition from Core Images and Its Application: A Case Study of Mackay River Oil Sands Reservoir
by Haojie Shang, Lihua Cheng, Jixin Huang, Lixin Wang and Yanshu Yin
Energies 2023, 16(1), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010465 - 1 Jan 2023
Viewed by 2197
Abstract
There is a large amount of drilling core data in the Mackay River oil sands block in Canada, and the accurate identification of facies from the cores is important and necessary for the understanding of the subsurface reservoir. The traditional recognition method of [...] Read more.
There is a large amount of drilling core data in the Mackay River oil sands block in Canada, and the accurate identification of facies from the cores is important and necessary for the understanding of the subsurface reservoir. The traditional recognition method of facies from cores is by human work and is very time consuming. Furthermore, the results are different according to different geologists because of the subjective judgment criterion. An efficient and objective method is important to solve the above problem. In this paper, the deep learning image-recognition algorithm is used to automatically and intelligently recognize the facies type from the core image. Through a series of high-reliability preprocessing operations, such as cropping, segmentation, rotation transformation, and noise removal of the original core image, that have been manually identified, the key feature information in the images is extracted based on the ResNet50 convolutional neural network. On the dataset of about 200 core images from 13 facies, an intelligent identification system of facies from core images is constructed, which realizes automatic facies identification from core images. Comparing this method with traditional convolutional neural networks and support vector machines (SVM), the results show that the recognition accuracy of this model is as high as 91.12%, which is higher than the other two models. It is also shown that for a relatively special dataset, such as core images, it is necessary to rely on their global features in order to classify them, and, with a large similarity between some of the categories, it is extremely difficult to classify them. The selection of a suitable neural network model can have a great impact on the accuracy of recognition results. Then, the recognized facies are input as hard data to construct the three-dimensional facies model, which reveals the complex heterogeneity and distribution of the subsurface reservoir for further exploration and development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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15 pages, 6555 KiB  
Article
Pore Structure and Fractal Characteristics of Continental Low Maturity Organic-Rich Shale in the Sha-4 Member of the Liaohe Western Depression
by Yinglin Liu, Lei Zhang, Xuejuan Zhang, Xin He, Jinpeng Li, Yabing Xing, Fuxin Jin and Yiran Wang
Energies 2023, 16(1), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010327 - 28 Dec 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1984
Abstract
The research on pore structure and heterogeneity of shale reservoirs has always been a hotspot in the study of unconventional reservoir characteristics. China is a country dominated by continental shale. Compared with marine shale, continental shale has lower maturity and stronger reservoir heterogeneity. [...] Read more.
The research on pore structure and heterogeneity of shale reservoirs has always been a hotspot in the study of unconventional reservoir characteristics. China is a country dominated by continental shale. Compared with marine shale, continental shale has lower maturity and stronger reservoir heterogeneity. In this study, Sha-4 shale in the Liaohe Western Depression was selected for low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, scanning electron microscopy and other experiments revealing the pore structure and fractal characteristics of continental low mature organic-rich shale. The fractal dimension was calculated by the FHH model and the effects of TOC and mineral composition on pore structure and fractal characteristics were discussed. The results show that the Sha-4 shale in the study area is mainly mesoporous and the main pore types are inorganic pores with relatively large pore diameters, such as intergranular pores and inter-crystalline pores. The pore morphology is very complex, mainly narrow slit and flat pore, and the pore is often filled with organic matter. The fractal dimensions D1 range from 2.58 to 2.87 and D2 range from 2.18 to 2.55, and the pore structure shows obvious dual fractal characteristics. The pore structure and fractal characteristics of shale are mainly affected by TOC and quartz due to the low degree of the thermal evolution of shale and their effects are different from those of marine shale reservoirs. The increase in TOC reduces the heterogeneity of the shale reservoir. In addition, mineral particles with strong weathering resistance and stability such as quartz can protect the pore structure of shale, improve the pore structure and reduce the reservoir heterogeneity. This study can provide support for the study of low maturity continental shale reservoir heterogeneity in the Sha-4 member of the Liaohe Western Depression. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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13 pages, 3212 KiB  
Article
Research on Rock Physics Modeling Methods for Fractured Shale Reservoirs
by Shengbo Yi, Shulin Pan, Hengyu Zuo, Yinghe Wu, Guojie Song and Qiyong Gou
Energies 2023, 16(1), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010226 - 25 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1983
Abstract
The Sichuan Basin is a significant region for exploration and development of shale gas in China, and it is essential to clarify the impact of deep shale gas reservoir parameters on cost-effective development at scale to ensure national energy security. Rock physics modeling [...] Read more.
The Sichuan Basin is a significant region for exploration and development of shale gas in China, and it is essential to clarify the impact of deep shale gas reservoir parameters on cost-effective development at scale to ensure national energy security. Rock physics modeling is a significant means of communicating the physical and elastic parameters of rocks. A rock physics modeling method applicable to fractured shale gas reservoirs is proposed for the current situation of complex fluid relationships in shale gas reservoirs and unclear characteristics of gas identification seismic response. In this paper, based on the Self Consistent Approximation (SCA) model and the differential effective medium (DEM) model, the anisotropic source of shale is used as a starting point to add bound water, kerogen, clay, and brittle minerals, the Schoenberg linear slip theory is used to add fracture disturbance effects, and then the Brown–Korringa model is used to perform fluid replacement under anisotropic conditions. Finally a rock physics model applicable to fractured shale gas reservoirs is obtained, and the established rock physics model is used for analysis of elastic parameters, Thomsen parameters, and fracture weakness parameters. Rock physics tests were performed on shale in southern Sichuan as an example. The experimental results show that the model established by the process can accurately invert the longitudinal and transverse wave velocities of the shale, which can provide a conceptual basis for the study of fractured shale gas reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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16 pages, 26923 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Volcanic Development Model and Main Controlling Factors of Oil Distribution in the Third Member of Shahejie Formation in Zaoyuan Oilfield
by Rui Ma, Lei Bao, Jian Sun, Yawen Li, Fei Wang and Jiagen Hou
Energies 2022, 15(23), 8789; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238789 - 22 Nov 2022
Viewed by 1111
Abstract
In order to clarify the influence in the volcanic mode and structure on the oil reservoirs, the volcanic reservoir characteristics, volcanic eruption pattern, and volcanic eruption period of the third member of the Shahejie formation in the Dagang Oilfield Zao35 fault block are [...] Read more.
In order to clarify the influence in the volcanic mode and structure on the oil reservoirs, the volcanic reservoir characteristics, volcanic eruption pattern, and volcanic eruption period of the third member of the Shahejie formation in the Dagang Oilfield Zao35 fault block are studied by combining logging, 3D seismic, and production data, and to provide geological basis for the subsequent development of volcanic reservoirs. The results show that the volcanic body of the Zao35 fault block is jointly controlled by the fissure-centered eruption mode, and there are three strings of bead-shaped eruption centers as well as a fault overflow channel. Based on the seismic response characteristics, the volcanic rocks can be divided into three main eruption cycles. Moreover, combined with the relatively stable mudstone interlayer encountered by the single well, it can be further divided into eight volcanic eruption periods. There are three different lava units in the overflow facies of each stage, namely thick layer dense basalt, basalt with pores developed at the top and dense at the bottom, and basalt with pores developed at the top and dense in the middle. Influenced by the volcanic development model, the oil is mainly distributed in the volcanic reservoir on the slope belt between the central eruption and the fracture eruption. Affected by volcanic eruption periods, the pore basalt at the top and bottom of each period controls the distribution of the oil reserves. Therefore, the thick layer stomatal basalt located between the two eruption modes is the key target of the next development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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15 pages, 4124 KiB  
Article
Reservoir Permeability Calculation under Flow Unit Control
by Xincai Cheng, Bin Zhao, Chuqiao Gao and Ying Gao
Energies 2022, 15(20), 7637; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15207637 - 16 Oct 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1706
Abstract
The No. 2 gas field in the X depression is a low-permeability tight reservoir with a complex lithology, pore structure, and strong physical heterogeneity, and the conventional core porosity–permeability regression method does not meet the requirements of fine evaluation in terms of the [...] Read more.
The No. 2 gas field in the X depression is a low-permeability tight reservoir with a complex lithology, pore structure, and strong physical heterogeneity, and the conventional core porosity–permeability regression method does not meet the requirements of fine evaluation in terms of the accuracy of permeability calculation. The flow unit method has great advantages in improving the accuracy of permeability calculation, but the FZI calculation method is too ideal and weakens the influence of the pore structure’s heterogeneity, and it needs to be verified that the FZI in the study area has a good correlation with the pore structure before it can be used. Therefore, based on analyzing the permeability control factors of low-permeability tight reservoirs, we analyze the correlation between three pore structure characterization parameters and the flow unit index FZI, which proves that the flow unit index FZI in this area can characterize the permeability difference within different flow units. Based on FZI theory and the cumulative frequency division method, we establish a fine evaluation model of four types of reservoirs in the study area. Through the response characteristics and correlation analysis of the conventional logging curves, we select three combined curves, establish a multi-parameter equation, and apply it to the permeability evaluation of the cored section that is not involved in modeling. The application results show that the calculated permeability is in good agreement with the core analysis results, which provides a theoretical basis for the fine evaluation of low-permeability tight reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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13 pages, 3680 KiB  
Article
Classification of Typical Tectonic Styles and Exploration of Hydrocarbon Accumulation Patterns in Southern Junggar Basin, China
by Dongsheng Ji, Yanan Xu, Zhichao Pang, Bo Yuan and Kang Zhao
Energies 2022, 15(18), 6715; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186715 - 14 Sep 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1504
Abstract
Affected by Tianshan uplift, the southern Junggar Basin has experienced multi-stage tectonic movements and formed many large-scale anticlines with zonal distribution. The key to hydrocarbon exploration is to accurately implement anticline traps. This paper is guided by the fault-related folds theory to tectonically [...] Read more.
Affected by Tianshan uplift, the southern Junggar Basin has experienced multi-stage tectonic movements and formed many large-scale anticlines with zonal distribution. The key to hydrocarbon exploration is to accurately implement anticline traps. This paper is guided by the fault-related folds theory to tectonically interpret several seismic profiles in the southern Junggar Basin and then summarize the anticline types and their hydrocarbon accumulation characteristics. This paper showed that the southern Junggar Basin has a tectonic assemblage pattern of “multi-detachment layers and multi-phase superposition”. According to the superimposed shape of the anticlines, they could be divided into overthrust anticlines, compound anticlines and multiple superimposed anticlines, and the horizontal and vertical positions of the different types of anticlines are different. The hydrocarbon accumulating characteristics of the different types of anticlines are shown to be different. The highs of the overthrust anticlines and compound anticlines are stable, and the degree of exploration is relatively high. Although the degree of exploration of multiple overlapping anticlines is low, multiple layers can be exploited simultaneously in the process of oil development, with great hydrocarbon potential. The characteristics of hydrocarbon accumulation in the southern Junggar Basin are discussed in order to provide guidance for efficient hydrocarbon exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sandbody Architecture Interpretation and Modeling Technology & Application in Geo Energy Area)
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