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21 pages, 7795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification Efficiency in Dynamic UHF RFID Anticollision Systems with Textile Electronic Tags

by Bartosz Pawłowicz, Kazimierz Kamuda, Mariusz Skoczylas, Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz, Mariusz Węglarski and Grzegorz Laskowski

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2626; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062626 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1598

Abstract

The study on the numerical model of communication processes implemented in RFID systems, in which textile electronic (RFIDtex) tags are used, is presented in the paper. The efficiency analysis covers the case of dynamic identification of a large amount of RFIDtex tags that [...] Read more.

The study on the numerical model of communication processes implemented in RFID systems, in which textile electronic (RFIDtex) tags are used, is presented in the paper. The efficiency analysis covers the case of dynamic identification of a large amount of RFIDtex tags that are located in a spatial interrogation zone of a typical Internet of Textile Things (IoTT) application. Simulations carried out in order to verify the efficiency of the identification process are confirmed by measurements on the dedicated laboratory stand. Since the application of the experiment is located in the area of a maintenance-free store to detect and distinguish textile products, particular attention is paid to reconstruction of conditions and object arrangements that are typical for this type of space. The model and experiment are developed on the basis of RFIDtex transponders that are restricted under the patent claim PL231291. The obtained results prove that within the scope of the assumed number of RFIDtex transponders, the user has great freedom in choosing the parameters of the communication protocol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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16 pages, 2142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Evaluation of Photovoltaic Cell Defects and Their Impact on Electricity Generation

by Marek Pavlík, L’ubomír Beňa, Dušan Medved’, Zsolt Čonka and Michal Kolcun

Energies 2023, 16(6), 2576; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16062576 - 9 Mar 2023

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 1842

Abstract

Many problems arise in the operation of photovoltaic systems. Each of these problems affects the operation of photovoltaic systems by reducing the power of the entire system. Some problems can be avoided during the design of photovoltaic systems. For example, when designing photovoltaic [...] Read more.

Many problems arise in the operation of photovoltaic systems. Each of these problems affects the operation of photovoltaic systems by reducing the power of the entire system. Some problems can be avoided during the design of photovoltaic systems. For example, when designing photovoltaic systems, it is possible to eliminate the shading of photovoltaic panels from surrounding objects. It is also necessary to look at the shading from neighboring photovoltaic panels when designing photovoltaic systems. It is necessary to calculate the inclination of the sunlight based on the position of the sun and calculate the distance between the two panels accordingly. However, some problems appear during the operation of photovoltaic systems. These problems can be partially eliminated. The magnitude of the series resistance can be eliminated by reducing the transition resistance throughout the system. The paper describes these problems and their possible solutions in practice. In the practical part, we focused on simulations and experiments in the field of photovoltaic systems (PV). The simulations focused on both the influence of temperature and the series resistance of photovoltaic panels on the production of electricity. The experiments were focused on the influence of various faults/defects on the power and V-A characteristics of photovoltaic panels connected in strings. The paper also discusses the impact of bypass diodes on the operation of photovoltaic systems and determines the need to use bypass diodes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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10 pages, 2209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Changes in the Resistivity of Semi Insulating Gallium Phosphide under the Influence of Lighting

by Karol Piwowarski, Witold Kaczmarek, Marek Suproniuk, Bogdan Perka and Piotr Paziewski

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1725; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041725 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1158

Abstract

The article presents the results of a simulation of changes in gallium phosphide (GaP) resistivity under the influence of lighting. The adopted model of the defect structure is presented along with the defect parameters. Initial conditions created on the basis of a tested [...] Read more.

The article presents the results of a simulation of changes in gallium phosphide (GaP) resistivity under the influence of lighting. The adopted model of the defect structure is presented along with the defect parameters. Initial conditions created on the basis of a tested material sample, labeled GaP-1, made of monocrystals of semi-insulating gallium phosphide (SI GaP), are presented. The simulation methodology and the created model of the kinetics equations are described. As a result of the simulation, the values of the photocurrent and the electron-hole pair generation coefficient G were assigned to data obtained experimentally depending on the carrier lifetime coefficient τ. Changes in resistivity and concentration of electrons and holes in the bands for gallium phosphide with a structure consisting of five defects are presented. The proposed simulation method can be used to calculate switch-on and -off times and photocurrent values for the semiconductor materials used to construct PCSS (photoconductive semiconductor switches) and other electronic devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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16 pages, 7032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Two Measurement Methods for the Emission of Radiated Disturbances Generated by LED Drivers

by Kazimierz Kuryło, Wiesław Sabat, Dariusz Klepacki and Kazimierz Kamuda

Energies 2022, 15(24), 9372; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249372 - 11 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1366

Abstract

The comparison of the results obtained using two methods for measuring the radio disturbance emissions produced by compact lighting drivers in the frequency range of 30 to 300 MHz has been presented in this paper. Any electrical and electronic equipment used within the [...] Read more.

The comparison of the results obtained using two methods for measuring the radio disturbance emissions produced by compact lighting drivers in the frequency range of 30 to 300 MHz has been presented in this paper. Any electrical and electronic equipment used within the EU must comply with Directive 2014/30/EC and harmonised standards. For lighting equipment, the dedicated standard is EN-IEC 55015:2019-11E. In this standard, for tests in the frequency range of 30 to 300 MHz, two equivalent test methods are allowed for lighting drivers, i.e., the traditional method in which disturbance emissions are measured in a semianechoic chamber SAC and the alternative CDNE (Coupling Decoupling Network Emission) method. Each method is characterised by a different measurement technique. For this reason, this paper aims to compare the results obtained by the two methods and to find out whether the CDNE and SAC methods, despite the difference in measurement technique, can be considered equivalent. The theoretical part of this study presents the results of an analysis of the literature on the subject and the technical aspects of measuring disturbance emission using both measurement methods. The practical part describes the construction of measurement stands for selected LED lamps and presents the measurement results and their statistical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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25 pages, 10803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accuracy Analysis of the Indoor Location System Based on Bluetooth Low-Energy RSSI Measurements

by Dariusz Janczak, Wojciech Walendziuk, Maciej Sadowski, Andrzej Zankiewicz, Krzysztof Konopko and Adam Idzkowski

Energies 2022, 15(23), 8832; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238832 - 23 Nov 2022

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2469

Abstract

Systems for determining the position of objects inside buildings have a wide range of applications, such as the surveillance of people’s movements in hospitals, and of goods or mobile robots in warehouse spaces or production halls. Hence, there is a need for the [...] Read more.

Systems for determining the position of objects inside buildings have a wide range of applications, such as the surveillance of people’s movements in hospitals, and of goods or mobile robots in warehouse spaces or production halls. Hence, there is a need for the development of methods that could be applied for those purposes. This paper presents the results of research on an experimental system for localizing people being evacuated from a building. The proposed solution was designed as a part of the building evacuation management system. The method used for finding location belongs to the class of proximity-type methods and is based on Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) information of Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE) devices. The devices used to build the system (BLE receivers) and the evacuee’s wristband (BLE transmitters) are low-budget electronic modules. The paper presents preliminary research and the process of selecting data processing methods, as well as the results of tests of the experimental network created for the evacuation system. The results of measurements and statistical analyses of the properties of the RSSI parameter of the BLE signal transmission between the modules used in the designed system are presented. In addition, the results of RSSI measurements and the analyses of RSSI recorded under varying environmental conditions in the building are presented. The choice of the data processing method and its parameters was made with the use of the determined probabilities of the nearest locator node detection. Finally, the performance of the experimental installation of the evacuee tracking system was tested and the effectiveness of the proximity method was evaluated. The experimental tests aimed to analyze the detection range and the impact of shading. They also allowed for determining the mean error and for estimating the maximum position determination error. It should be emphasized that the proposed position estimation method has a very low computational load, allowing the implementation of an extensive real-time system on a typical personal computer. Although the proposed system should be classified as a coarse positioning system, its features such as low cost, simplicity, flexibility, the use of commonly available components and low requirements for computational load make it attractive. Such a system is directly transferable to other applications in, for example, Industry 4.0. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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21 pages, 3666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wind Turbine Power Control According to EU Legislation

by Zsolt Čonka, Ľubomír Beňa, Róbert Štefko, Marek Pavlík, Peter Holcsik and Judith Pálfi

Energies 2022, 15(22), 8614; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15228614 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1623

Abstract

Due to high electricity prices and possible shortages of gas and other energy commodities, various fluctuations in electricity generation will need to be regulated. Given the increasing expansion of wind power plants in Europe and worldwide. It is necessary and essential to put [...] Read more.

Due to high electricity prices and possible shortages of gas and other energy commodities, various fluctuations in electricity generation will need to be regulated. Given the increasing expansion of wind power plants in Europe and worldwide. It is necessary and essential to put power regulation into practice, as mandated by regulation 2016/631 EU. A significant power balance problem may arise on the grid, which may lead to cyclical and recurring blackouts in the future. The motivation for this paper is to raise awareness of the controllability of wind turbines and to highlight the gentle pace of research in this area for pitch angle control. Therefore, the chief idea of the paper is to develop a proposal for wind power plant power control by changing the rotor blade rotation, following previous research in this area, and determining the shortcomings and possibilities. The paper provides a numerical method for controlling the power output of a wind power plant, for which an algorithm has been proposed. This control is intended to provide a framework for the design and implementation of a wind power plant control program. Coordination between the multiple sources will fulfil a leading role in smooth power management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 4889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power System Division—Certain Issues Associated with Shaping Commutation Strategies in Power Substations

by Aleksandra Skuza, Stanisław Ziemianek and Marek Suproniuk

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7293; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197293 - 4 Oct 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1340

Abstract

The article addresses some of the problems associated with the process of shaping commutation strategies in power substations. The issues of modelling the commutation processes of switching devices within a substation and a sample system, as well as mathematical models for creating switching [...] Read more.

The article addresses some of the problems associated with the process of shaping commutation strategies in power substations. The issues of modelling the commutation processes of switching devices within a substation and a sample system, as well as mathematical models for creating switching steps within a substation were reviewed. Examples of optimisation methods to be possibly applied in the creation of algorithms for the division of a system into subsystems as a result of a threat of losing its integrity were discussed. The aim of this article is to present the results of preliminary research on the topic described. Its content includes the main methods to achieve the final research results. It is therefore an article marking the path of the research work carried out. The article shows that it is possible, with simple substation measures, to adapt a large power system in such a way that eventual subdivision into sub-systems can be realised by system operation planners before uncontrolled division as a result of a fault occurs. To illustrate the intent of the pathway, a New England test system modified version was used, using an example where the binodalisation process and one possible division of this system into subsystems was explained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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13 pages, 4759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Lightning Overvoltage in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

by Tomasz Kossowski and Paweł Szczupak

Energies 2022, 15(18), 6609; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15186609 - 9 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1660

Abstract

This paper presents research on the model developed in the Matlab environment for simulating effects of overvoltage in an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) upon lightning discharge. They are based on transmittance obtained from voltage surge impulse measured in drone circuits. Overvoltage waveforms were [...] Read more.

This paper presents research on the model developed in the Matlab environment for simulating effects of overvoltage in an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) upon lightning discharge. They are based on transmittance obtained from voltage surge impulse measured in drone circuits. Overvoltage waveforms were measured at the input and output of different parts of the machine. It was then possible to calculate the transmittance of those (chosen) circuits. The motors, supply system, communication lines, and sensors were primarily tested. Both positive and negative polarization of the surge pulse were used and compared. The shape of pulse, is standardized by international norms for avionics tests (RTCA DO-160). The special surge generators were used to prepare the same repetition of each pulse (for all measurements). The simplified model of surge pulses propagation in drone circuits was prepared in Matlab. The differential between direct and step-by-step paths of pulse propagation in some connected circuits were also compared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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12 pages, 2924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Approximation of Fractional Order PI^λD^μ-Controller Transfer Function Using Chain Fractions

by Yaroslav Marushchak, Damian Mazur, Bogdan Kwiatkowski, Bohdan Kopchak, Tadeusz Kwater and Maciej Koryl

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4902; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134902 - 4 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1401

Abstract

The approximation of a fractional order PI^λD^μ-controller transfer function using a chain fraction theory is considered. Analytical expressions for the approximation of

s^{\pm α}

components of the transfer functions of PI^λD^μ-controllers were obtained through [...] Read more.

The approximation of a fractional order PI^λD^μ-controller transfer function using a chain fraction theory is considered. Analytical expressions for the approximation of

s^{\pm α}

components of the transfer functions of PI^λD^μ-controllers were obtained through the application of the chain fraction theory. Graphs of transition functions and frequency characteristics of D^μ (α = μ = 0.5) and I^λ (α = λ = −0.5) parts for five different decomposition orders were obtained and analyzed. The results showed the possibility of applying the approximation of the PI^λD^μ-controller transfer function by the method of chain fractions with different valuesof λ and μ. For comparison, the transfer functions with the same order polynomials, obtained by the methods of Oustaloup transformation and chain fractions, were approximated for α = ±0.5. The analysis proved the advantages of using the chain fraction method to approximate the transfer function of the PI^λD^μ-controller. The performed approximation opens up the possibility of developing engineering methods for the technical implementation of PI^λD^μ-controllers. The accuracy of the same order transfer function approximation is higher when the method of chain fractions is used. It has been established that the adequacy of the frequency characteristics of the transfer functions obtained by the chain fraction method also depends on the approximation order. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 5927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Idea of RFIDtex Transponders Utilization in Household Appliances on the Example of a Washing Machine Demonstrator

by Bartosz Pawłowicz, Marek Kołcz and Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz

Energies 2022, 15(7), 2639; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072639 - 4 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2514

Abstract

Modern textronic RFID transponders offer a lot of new possibilities for household appliances designers. Possibility to implement new functions is most evident in clothes washing and ironing techniques, where the information stored in the memory of the RFID transponder sewn into the textiles [...] Read more.

Modern textronic RFID transponders offer a lot of new possibilities for household appliances designers. Possibility to implement new functions is most evident in clothes washing and ironing techniques, where the information stored in the memory of the RFID transponder sewn into the textiles can be used to choose the most appropriate ironing program for a given type of fabric or to select the best washing program for different clothes placed in a drum of washing machine. The purpose of the work was to propose, design, and develop a laboratory stand to demonstrate usage of RFIDtex transponders in a washing machine. The developed device enabled simulation of the presence of textiles equipped with RFIDtex transponders in a washing machine drum. A set of measurements of the constructed device readout efficiency of textronic transponders placed in the drum was also performed. The device firmware, which manages multiple data readings from tags inside the drum for the performed by integrated RWD (read/write device), was also prepared and implemented. This allowed the efficiency of the identification of textiles equipped with RFIDtex transponders to be increased. RFIDtex transponders can also be used in the future to provide precise information about textiles to the washing machine. Based on this information, device will be able to reduce power consumption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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13 pages, 2900 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Impurities in Electrical Contacts on Increasing the Efficiency of Energy Transmission

by Dušan Medveď, Ľubomír Beňa, Michal Kolcun and Marek Pavlík

Energies 2022, 15(7), 2339; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072339 - 23 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2918

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to analyze the heat distribution in the high-current electrical contact under the action of an assumed current of 3000 A using mathematical modeling and simulation. Electrical contacts that carry high currents are an essential component of many [...] Read more.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the heat distribution in the high-current electrical contact under the action of an assumed current of 3000 A using mathematical modeling and simulation. Electrical contacts that carry high currents are an essential component of many electric devices. In transmission and distribution systems, the electrical contacts are of particular importance because they must withstand adverse weather conditions that decrease their effectiveness. Therefore, it is essential to detect any rise in temperature of the electrical contact to ensure efficient and reliable energy transmission. For this paper, simulations of the temperature field in direct electrical contact were carried out in ANSYS and discussed. During the simulation, a high-current electric contact was exposed to 3000 A current and the change of the adverse effects of contaminated contact layers affected temperature field. According to the results, electric contact in good condition (represented by impurity layer of lower resistivity) had a temperature of 80 °C lower than an electric contact that was worn out (represented by impurity layer of higher resistivity). The investigation of the resistivity of contaminated contact layers has led to the determination of permissible values for the power grid operators to maintain these types of devices when temperatures rise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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23 pages, 6441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis of Selected Predictive Algorithms in Control of Machine Processes

by Paweł Dymora, Mirosław Mazurek and Sławomir Bomba

Energies 2022, 15(5), 1895; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051895 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

The paper presents a comparative analysis of selected algorithms for prediction and data analysis. The research was based on data taken from a computerized numerical control (CNC) milling machine. Methods of knowledge extraction from very large datasets, characteristics of classical analytical methods used [...] Read more.

The paper presents a comparative analysis of selected algorithms for prediction and data analysis. The research was based on data taken from a computerized numerical control (CNC) milling machine. Methods of knowledge extraction from very large datasets, characteristics of classical analytical methods used in datasets and knowledge discovery in database (KDD) processes were also described. The aim of the study is a comparative analysis of selected algorithms for prediction and data analysis to determine the time and degree of tool usage in order to react early enough and avoid unwanted incidents affecting production effectiveness. The research was based on K-nearest neighbor, decision tree and linear regression algorithms. The influence of the rate of learning and testing set sizes were evaluated, which may have an important impact on the optimization of the time and quality of computation. It was shown that precision decreases with the increase of the K value of the average group, while the percentage of the number of classes in a given set (recall) increases. The harmonic mean for the group mean also increases with increasing K, while a significant decrease in these values was observed for the standard deviations of the group. The numerical value of accuracy decreases with increasing K. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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22 pages, 6275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RFID Sensors for Monitoring Glazing Units Integrating Photovoltaic Modules

by Mariusz Węglarski, Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz, Kazimierz Kamuda, Patryk Pyt, Grzegorz Pitera, Wojciech Lichoń, Mateusz Chamera and Cezary Ciejka

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041401 - 15 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2263

Abstract

The paper focuses on the synthesis of semi-passive RFID transponders-sensors that are intended to integrate with active glazing units with built-in photovoltaic cells. The main purpose of the designed construction of the UHF RFID device is to provide diagnostic information in the monitoring [...] Read more.

The paper focuses on the synthesis of semi-passive RFID transponders-sensors that are intended to integrate with active glazing units with built-in photovoltaic cells. The main purpose of the designed construction of the UHF RFID device is to provide diagnostic information in the monitoring system of a photovoltaic micro-power plant. Furthermore, the RFID sensor is aimed at being implemented at various stages of the product life cycle: production, distribution, storage, installation, common operation, service/maintenance and disposal. In the presented research work, particular attention is paid to several aspects of the RFID sensor synthesis: use of the energy, generated periodically in the PV cells, to power the monitoring device that has to act permanently; specification of the PV module parameters that have to be monitored in the diagnostic process; implementation of data acquisition and energy management models in an electrical circuit; wireless data transfer to the master unit (monitoring host), even in the absence of power supply (e.g., module damage, blackout), using a standardized communication protocol IEC 18000-63 used in the RFID technology; and the design of the antenna system taking into consideration limitations of electronic technology and the material properties of substrates and glasses used in PV modules and RFID sensors. Based on the results of the investigations, the modular structure of the RFID sensor demonstrator is proposed. Moreover, several diagnostic scenarios are analyzed in detail. On the basis of the provided considerations, it is shown that in order to find a malfunctioning component, it is enough to compare the voltages on the photovoltaic modules that are in the close vicinity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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17 pages, 3165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Polynomial Approximation to Self Consistent Solution for Schrödinger–Poisson Equations in Superlattice Structures

by Mariusz Mączka and Stanisław Pawłowski

Energies 2022, 15(3), 760; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030760 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1859

Abstract

The paper deals with a new approach to iterative solving the Schrödinger and Poisson equations in the first type of semiconductor superlattice. Assumptions of the transfer matrix method are incorporated into the approach, which allows to take into account the potential varying within [...] Read more.

The paper deals with a new approach to iterative solving the Schrödinger and Poisson equations in the first type of semiconductor superlattice. Assumptions of the transfer matrix method are incorporated into the approach, which allows to take into account the potential varying within each single layer of bias voltage superlattice. The key process of the method is to approximate the charge density and wave functions with polynomials. It allows to obtain semi-analytical solutions for the Schrödinger and Poisson equations, which in turn have significant impact on the accuracy and speed of superlattice simulations. The presented procedure is also suifihue for finding eigenstates extended over relatively large superlattice area, and it can be used as an effective pro-gram module for a superlattice finite model. The obtained quantum states are very similar to the Wannier-Stark functions, and they can serve as the base under non-equilibrium Green’s function formalism (NEGF). Exemplary results for Schrödinger and Poisson solutions for superlattices based on the GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure are presented to prove all the above. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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14 pages, 2751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Active Power Losses in Smart Grids Using Photovoltaic Power Plants

by Daniel Pál, Ľubomír Beňa, Michal Kolcun and Zsolt Čonka

Energies 2022, 15(3), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15030739 - 20 Jan 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1744

Abstract

This article addresses the reduction of power losses in smart grids. Two optimization algorithms are used in this article. The first method is the enumerative method. The second method of the optimization calculation is based on the self-organizing migrating algorithm. In the first [...] Read more.

This article addresses the reduction of power losses in smart grids. Two optimization algorithms are used in this article. The first method is the enumerative method. The second method of the optimization calculation is based on the self-organizing migrating algorithm. In the first step, the network parameters are calculated based on the input data, and then the target function is determined. In this article, the target function is used to reduce the active power losses that occur during the operation of an electric network. More specifically, we attempt to determine the reactive power with the enumerative and SOMA algorithms to reduce the value of the active power losses. This article intends to illustrate the differences between the selected optimization algorithms. As observed, the optimization algorithm determines the computation time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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15 pages, 6559 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors to Acceleration

by Zygmunt Szczerba, Piotr Szczerba and Kamil Szczerba

Energies 2022, 15(2), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020493 - 11 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2289

Abstract

The article presents the negative aspects of the influence of static and dynamic acceleration on the accuracy of pressure measurement for a selected type of transmitter. The influence of static accelerations from catalog notes was shown and compared with the tests results for [...] Read more.

The article presents the negative aspects of the influence of static and dynamic acceleration on the accuracy of pressure measurement for a selected type of transmitter. The influence of static accelerations from catalog notes was shown and compared with the tests results for a few selected sensors. The results of research on the influence of dynamic acceleration for various types of its variability for selected converters are presented. Moreover, a method of measurement patented by the authors that uses a complex transducer is shown. The method allows for more accurate measurements on moving objects. The tests were performed based on the proposed method. The obtained results of the influence of acceleration on the classical sensor as well as the construction using the proposed method are shown. The paper presents approximate pressure measurement errors resulting from the influence of acceleration. For example, errors in measuring the speed of an airplane may occur without the proposed method. The last part of the article presents a unique design dedicated to a multi-point pressure measurement system, which uses the presented method of eliminating the influence of accelerations on the pressure measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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24 pages, 5198 KiB

Open AccessArticle

VR Education Support System—A Case Study of Digital Circuits Design

by Andrzej Paszkiewicz, Mateusz Salach, Dominik Strzałka, Grzegorz Budzik, Alicja Nikodem, Hubert Wójcik and Marcin Witek

Energies 2022, 15(1), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010277 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5282

Abstract

Areas of experience allow for the acquisition and consolidation of both existing knowledge and skills. These are significant factors in the training of staff members for companies in the Industry 4.0 area. One of the currently available modern tools used in the teaching [...] Read more.

Areas of experience allow for the acquisition and consolidation of both existing knowledge and skills. These are significant factors in the training of staff members for companies in the Industry 4.0 area. One of the currently available modern tools used in the teaching process is virtual reality (VR) technology. This technology, due to its high level of immersion and involvement of the different senses, and the need to focus on the performed activities, allows one to develop skills in solving various tasks and problems. The extended VR environment enables the creation of diverse teaching scenarios adapted to the needs of industry. This paper presents the possibility of building training scenarios in the field of digital techniques. The software solution, developed and presented by the authors, uses elements of computer game mechanics and is designed to familiarize students with the idea of digital circuits, their construction, logical implementation and application. This paper also presents a comparison of the features of different forms of education used in teaching digital techniques, as well as a comparison of these forms, from the point of view of the student and his/her perceptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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24 pages, 11075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Frequency Analysis of Partial Short-Circuit Fault in BLDC Motors with Combined Star-Delta Winding

by Mariusz Korkosz, Bartłomiej Pakla and Jan Prokop

Energies 2022, 15(1), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010196 - 28 Dec 2021

Viewed by 1887

Abstract

This paper analyses the condition of a partial short-circuit in a brushless permanent magnet motor. Additionally, the problem was analysed for three stator winding configurations: star, delta and star-delta connection. The paper presents an original mathematical model allowing a winding configurations to be [...] Read more.

This paper analyses the condition of a partial short-circuit in a brushless permanent magnet motor. Additionally, the problem was analysed for three stator winding configurations: star, delta and star-delta connection. The paper presents an original mathematical model allowing a winding configurations to be analysed. What is more, the said mathematical model allows taking account of the partial short-circuit condition. Frequency analysis (Fast Fourier Transform—FFT) of the artificial neutral point voltage was proposed for the purpose of detecting the partial short-circuit condition. It was demonstrated that a partial short-circuit causes a marked increase in the diagnostic frequencies of the voltage signal. The proposed brushless permanent magnet motor diagnostic method is able to detect the fault regardless of the stator winding configuration type. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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24 pages, 12842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

IoT Solutions for Maintenance and Evaluation of Photovoltaic Systems

by Jacek Kusznier and Wojciech Wojtkowski

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8567; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248567 - 19 Dec 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3174

Abstract

The effective operation of photovoltaic systems depends on many factors and parameters that must be continuously monitored. The factors listed in the article are frequently variable, which makes it very difficult to predict the amount of radiation that will reach photovoltaic panels and [...] Read more.

The effective operation of photovoltaic systems depends on many factors and parameters that must be continuously monitored. The factors listed in the article are frequently variable, which makes it very difficult to predict the amount of radiation that will reach photovoltaic panels and can be converted into electricity. Therefore, to optimize the operating point of a photovoltaic power plant, it is necessary to track the changes in these quantities. IoT systems may help in controlling and managing a power plant, storage, and energy flow to the power grid. The results recorded at the hybrid power plant of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the Bialystok University of Technology are useful for a comprehensive analysis of the operation of the plant and ways of its optimization. It is shown that implementation of a comprehensive maintenance system may deliver extensive important information regarding the PV plant installation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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21 pages, 3056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling and Fault Tolerance Analysis of ZigBee Protocol in IoT Networks

by Paweł Dymora, Mirosław Mazurek and Krzysztof Smalara

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8264; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248264 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2742

Abstract

This paper presents the essence of IoT (Internet of Things) works and design challenges, discusses its principles of operation, and presents IoT development concepts. WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) was characterized in detail as an essential component of IoT infrastructure. The various faults that [...] Read more.

This paper presents the essence of IoT (Internet of Things) works and design challenges, discusses its principles of operation, and presents IoT development concepts. WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) was characterized in detail as an essential component of IoT infrastructure. The various faults that can occur at all levels of the IoT architecture, such as sensor nodes, actuators, network links, as well as processing and storage components clearly demonstrate that fault-tolerance (FT) has become a key issue for IoT systems. A properly applied routing algorithm has a direct impact on the power consumption of sensors, which in extreme cases is the reason why nodes shut down due to battery degradation. To study the fault tolerance of IoT infrastructure, a ZigBee network topology was created, and various node failure scenarios were simulated. Furthermore, the results presented showed the impact and importance of choosing the right routing scheme, based on the correlation of throughput to the number of rejected packets, as well as the proportionality of the value of management traffic to the other including the ratio of rejected packets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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18 pages, 9968 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis Performance of SRM Based on the Novel Dependent Torque Control Method

by Piotr Bogusz, Mariusz Korkosz, Jan Prokop and Mateusz Daraż

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8203; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248203 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2259

Abstract

This paper presents a description and the results of simulations and laboratory tests of proposed methods for dependent torque control in a Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM). The proposed methods are based on Dependent Torque Motor Control (Rising Slope), DTMC^(RC), and Dependent [...] Read more.

This paper presents a description and the results of simulations and laboratory tests of proposed methods for dependent torque control in a Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM). The proposed methods are based on Dependent Torque Motor Control (Rising Slope), DTMC^(RC), and Dependent Torque Motor Control (Falling Slope), DTMC^(FC). The results of these studies were compared with those on the Classical Torque Motor Control (CTMC) method. Studies were conducted for each of the analyzed control methods by determining the efficiency of the drive and the RMS of the source current and analyzing the vibrations generated for each of the control methods. The harmonics of the phase currents, which caused an increase in the level of vibrations generated, were determined. The usefulness of the proposed methods for controlling SRMs was assessed based on simulations and experiments. Additionally, the natural frequencies of the stator of the tested SRM were determined by a simulation using the Ansys Maxwell suite. The levels of vibration acceleration generated by the SRM were compared for the considered control methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 4911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy Logic Based Synchronization Method for Solar Powered High Frequency On-Board Grid

by Tomasz Binkowski

Energies 2021, 14(24), 8194; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248194 - 7 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2106

Abstract

This paper proposes a method for synchronizing a grid inverter with the voltage of an on-board high-frequency power grid. The described synchronization method belongs to the adaptive methods, which use fuzzy logic in the process of estimating the fundamental component of the voltage. [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a method for synchronizing a grid inverter with the voltage of an on-board high-frequency power grid. The described synchronization method belongs to the adaptive methods, which use fuzzy logic in the process of estimating the fundamental component of the voltage. The synchronization system has been tuned to achieve the primary goal of achieving synchronization in the shortest possible time. This is to allow for the efficient energy fed from photovoltaic sources into the on-board grid at 400 Hz. The proposed method was implemented in the field programmable gate array (FPGA) based power converter controller and static and dynamic tests for harmonic, interharmonic and subharmonic voltage disturbances were performed. Dynamic tests for phase jump, frequency jump and sag of the on-board voltage were also performed. To evaluate the effectiveness of synchronization with high-frequency voltage, the grid current control system in the grid tied inverter was elaborated. Proper current waveforms at the perturbed voltage were recorded while identifying the effectiveness of power ripple suppression. The results obtained were compared with the enhanced phase locked loop (EPLL) synchronization method. Satisfactory test results confirmed the suitability of the proposed method in systems coupling the photovoltaic source to the on-board high-frequency power grid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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17 pages, 3341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Traffic Intersection Lane Control Using Radio Frequency Identification and 5G Communication

by Andrzej Paszkiewicz, Bartosz Pawłowicz, Bartosz Trybus and Mateusz Salach

Energies 2021, 14(23), 8066; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14238066 - 2 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2325

Abstract

This article deals with automated urban traffic management, and proposes a new comprehensive infrastructure solution for dynamic traffic direction switching at intersection lines. It was assumed that the currently used solutions based on video monitoring are unreliable. Therefore, the Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) [...] Read more.

This article deals with automated urban traffic management, and proposes a new comprehensive infrastructure solution for dynamic traffic direction switching at intersection lines. It was assumed that the currently used solutions based on video monitoring are unreliable. Therefore, the Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) technique was introduced, in which vehicles are counted and, if necessary, identified in order to estimate the flows on individual lanes. The data is acquired in real time using fifth-generation wireless communications (5G). The Pots and Ising models derived from the theory of statistical physics were used in a novel way to determine the state of direction traffic lights. The models were verified by simulations using data collected from real traffic observations. The results were presented for two exemplary intersections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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13 pages, 4579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Testing of Conductive Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites Using Current Impulses Simulating Lightning Effects

by Kamil Filik, Grzegorz Karnas, Grzegorz Masłowski, Mariusz Oleksy, Rafał Oliwa and Katarzyna Bulanda

Energies 2021, 14(23), 7899; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14237899 - 25 Nov 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2064

Abstract

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are lightweight and an increasingly used material with good mechanical properties. In the aviation industry, they are also required to have specific electrical properties that guarantee resistance to the direct and indirect lightning effects. The paper is [...] Read more.

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites are lightweight and an increasingly used material with good mechanical properties. In the aviation industry, they are also required to have specific electrical properties that guarantee resistance to the direct and indirect lightning effects. The paper is focused on the description of a test stand and development of a method used to determine the electrical characteristics of conductive CFRP laminate samples with the use of high current impulses of lightning nature. Samples of three laminates (square format with side 30 × 30 cm) with a different composition were tested on the constructed stand, confirming the possibility of characterizing this type of laminate sample in terms of electrical conductivity and resistance to the effects of lightning current. It was possible to observe the impulse current flow (with a peak value up to 15 kA and a rise time above 6 µs) from the high voltage electrode placed in the center of the sample in all directions towards the edge. The optical fiber measuring system was used to record the voltage and current time waveforms. The energy stored in the impulse current generator was sufficient to simulate the mechanical damage, such as burnout and delamination, that accompanies the direct lightning strike to structural elements made of CFRP. The influence of the matrix composition used for laminate fabrication on the test results describing the electrical properties of the tested CFRP samples was noted. The experimental setup allows the testing of specimens with a maximum width and length of 50 × 50 cm and any thickness with a peak current of up to 50 kA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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34 pages, 14250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Control of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator of a Wind Turbine in Island Grid Operation

by Lesław Gołębiowski, Marek Gołębiowski and Bogdan Kwiatkowski

Energies 2021, 14(23), 7883; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14237883 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1866

Abstract

Great significance is given to the use of energy from renewable sources, especially in industrial and municipal applications. The present article is devoted to the optimal control of a DFIG generator with the help of a rotor-side converter (RSC). Its aim is to [...] Read more.

Great significance is given to the use of energy from renewable sources, especially in industrial and municipal applications. The present article is devoted to the optimal control of a DFIG generator with the help of a rotor-side converter (RSC). Its aim is to ensure the delivery of the voltage of a three-phase network with appropriate parameters while operating in an islanded grid. Such a grid is usually characterized by an uneven loading of each phase. Additionally, the load of these phases changes randomly in time. In order to ensure the assumed parameters of line voltages, the optimal control is applied with a square cost function. This ensures the shape of voltage that is in accordance with the referential voltage. Moreover, higher harmonics with a given number are detected and reduced. The simulations that were executed confirm compliance with the conditions of the parameters of the output voltage in the islanded grid. Attention was paid to oscillations in the power flowing through the rotor-side converter (RSC). The methods to accelerate the suppression of these oscillations are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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23 pages, 3846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Selected Open-Source Solutions for Traffic Balancing in Server Infrastructures Providing WWW Service

by Paweł Dymora, Mirosław Mazurek and Bartosz Sudek

Energies 2021, 14(22), 7719; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14227719 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2466

Abstract

As the number of users increased over the years, pioneering technologies and solutions in given areas ceased to be sufficient even in terms of performance. Therefore, there was a need for their development or even redesign and redefinition. One of the issues that [...] Read more.

As the number of users increased over the years, pioneering technologies and solutions in given areas ceased to be sufficient even in terms of performance. Therefore, there was a need for their development or even redesign and redefinition. One of the issues that undoubtedly has a huge impact on the current shape of the global network and the way information is processed in it is the issue of traffic balancing, especially the one in the server infrastructure related to the WWW service, providing users with the possibility of efficient and reliable web browsing. The paper presents a comparative analysis of selected open-source solutions used for traffic balancing in server infrastructures providing WWW service based on selected criteria. The designed architecture of the test environment and the test results of selected tools implementing the traffic-balancing functionality are presented. Methodologies, test plans, and comparison criteria are proposed. A comparative analysis of results based on specific criteria was performed. The balance between network traffic optimization and load balancing distribution among servers is crucial for the development of energy-efficient data processing centers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 83717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Impact of Per Unit Parameters Errors on Wave and Output Parameters in a Transmission Line

by Sebastian Różowicz, Andrzej Zawadzki, Maciej Włodarczyk, Antoni Różowicz and Damian Mazur

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7440; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217440 - 8 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1693

Abstract

The assessment of the impact of per unit length parameter errors on the determination of wave parameters, currents, and voltages at the end of the line has been presented in the paper. The impact on the above-mentioned values has been indicated. This paper [...] Read more.

The assessment of the impact of per unit length parameter errors on the determination of wave parameters, currents, and voltages at the end of the line has been presented in the paper. The impact on the above-mentioned values has been indicated. This paper presents an assessment of the impact of per unit parameter errors on the determination of both wave parameters, as well as currents and voltages at the end of a transmission line, although it is mainly focused on indicating which of the per unit parameters have the strongest impact on the above-mentioned values. For this purpose, elements of incremental sensitivity have been used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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35 pages, 7959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Characteristic Polynomials on the Basis of Fractional Powers j of Dynamic Systems and Stability Problems of Such Systems

by Orest Lozynskyy, Damian Mazur, Yaroslav Marushchak, Bogdan Kwiatkowski, Andriy Lozynskyy, Tadeusz Kwater, Bohdan Kopchak, Przemysław Hawro, Lidiia Kasha, Robert Pękala, Robert Ziemba and Bogusław Twaróg

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7374; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217374 - 5 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1804

Abstract

The article presents the creation of characteristic polynomials on the basis of fractional powers j of dynamic systems and problems related to the determination of the stability intervals of such systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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16 pages, 6519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Filterless, Digital Class-BD Audio Amplifiers with Constant Common Mode Output Voltage

by Stanisław Kuta, Witold Machowski, Wojciech Kołodziejski and Łukasz Chlastawa

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7014; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217014 - 26 Oct 2021

Viewed by 2267

Abstract

This paper presents new and original architectures and implementations of two filterless, open-loop digital Class-BD audio amplifiers with constant common mode (CM) output voltage. The first, low-power amplifier consists of four ultrahigh-current EL7158 pin drivers, the OUT pins of which form the H [...] Read more.

This paper presents new and original architectures and implementations of two filterless, open-loop digital Class-BD audio amplifiers with constant common mode (CM) output voltage. The first, low-power amplifier consists of four ultrahigh-current EL7158 pin drivers, the OUT pins of which form the H bridge. The drivers are controlled from the extended LBDD PWM modulator and have appropriately set voltage levels on the VL and VH pins. The second proposed amplifier consists of two cooperating H-bridge power stages (HBS) implemented on complementary MOSFET pairs and powered by two different voltages. Both HBSs are driven by four EL7158 pin drivers having appropriately adjusted voltage levels on the VL and VH pins and controlled by an extended LBDD PWM modulator. The hybrid 9 bit DPWM modulator uses a linearized Class-BD double-sided modulation scheme with pre-compensation, enabling the most faithful emulation of natural NBDD PWM and, thus, providing attractive spectral characteristics at the DM output. Basic SPICE simulations and experimental results of the proposed digital Class-BD amplifiers were compared with the conventional digital Class-BD amplifiers. The elimination of CM signals significantly contributes to the reduction in electromagnetic interference (EMI), particularly those produced on the cables connecting the loudspeaker to the HBS terminal. Proposed Class-BD amplifiers with original and new topologies, due to their simple design and easy control (no galvanic isolation of control signals and no floating bias power supplies), which generate no CM voltage and feature excellent DM performance, similar to conventional Class-BD amplifiers, are very attractive solutions for filterless Class-BD amplifiers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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14 pages, 2396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Two- to Three-Dimensional Model of Heat Flow in Edge-Emitting Laser: Theory, Experiment and Numerical Tools

by Michał Szymański, Anna Kozłowska, Jens Tomm, Roman Huk, Andrzej Maląg and Marian Rusek

Energies 2021, 14(21), 7006; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217006 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1775

Abstract

Mathematical modeling of thermal behavior of edge-emitting lasers requires the usage of sophisticated time-consuming numerical methods like FEM (Finite Element Method) or very complicated 3D analytical approaches. In this work, we present an approach, which is based on a relatively simple 2D analytical [...] Read more.

Mathematical modeling of thermal behavior of edge-emitting lasers requires the usage of sophisticated time-consuming numerical methods like FEM (Finite Element Method) or very complicated 3D analytical approaches. In this work, we present an approach, which is based on a relatively simple 2D analytical solution of heat conduction equation. Our method enables extremely fast calculation of two crucial physical quantities; namely, junction and mirror temperature. As an example subject of research, we chose self-made p-side-down mounted InGaAs/GaAs/AlGaAs laser. Purpose-designed axial heat source function was introduced to take into account various mirror heating mechanisms, namely, surface recombination, reabsorption of radiation, Joule, and bulk heating. Our theoretical investigations were accompanied by experiments. We used micro-Raman spectroscopy for measuring the temperature of the laser front facet. We show excellent convergence of calculated and experimental results. In addition, we present links to freely available self-written Matlab functions, and we give some hints on how to use them for thermal analysis of laser bars or quantum cascade lasers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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15 pages, 22546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagnosis of the Static Excitation Systems of Synchronous Generators with the Use of Hardware-In-the-Loop Technologies

by Andriy Kutsyk, Mykola Semeniuk, Mariusz Korkosz and Grzegorz Podskarbi

Energies 2021, 14(21), 6937; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14216937 - 21 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2793

Abstract

In this paper, testing and diagnosis methods for the static excitation systems of power plant synchronous generators using Hardware-In-the-Loop technology are described. These methods allow a physical excitation system to be connected to a real-time model of a power plant unit. A feature [...] Read more.

In this paper, testing and diagnosis methods for the static excitation systems of power plant synchronous generators using Hardware-In-the-Loop technology are described. These methods allow a physical excitation system to be connected to a real-time model of a power plant unit. A feature of a static excitation system is the presence of generator self-excitation—that is, when the input voltages of the excitation system are defined by a synchronous generator. These voltages are determining by the digital model, which creates additional difficulties with combining a digital model with a real excitation system. Various ways to solve this problem are described in this article; in particular, we focus on the option in which the gate-impulses of a thyristor converter are applied to the digital model by a real static excitation system. The real-time models are based on the method of average voltages in the integration step. This method is effective for providing numerical stability for the models of power schemes and their functioning in real time mode over a long period. A synchronization method for the calculation time of the model with real time is described. The adequacy of the described method is proved by the results of the static excitation system of synchronous generators testing in operating and fault modes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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19 pages, 4907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Drone Electronic Systems to a Standardized Lightning Pulse

by Paweł Szczupak and Tomasz Kossowski

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6547; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206547 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

This paper presents the results of experimental tests of the impulse response of selected, essential components of a drone. A standardized lightning pulse that is often used during immunity tests of electronic devices in the aviation industry was applied. A single-stroke voltage impulse [...] Read more.

This paper presents the results of experimental tests of the impulse response of selected, essential components of a drone. A standardized lightning pulse that is often used during immunity tests of electronic devices in the aviation industry was applied. A single-stroke voltage impulse generator, MIG0618SS, was capable of producing the desired pulses. The input voltage was injected into selected electronic circuits of the drone system and pulses were observed in different parts of the machine. This allowed us to build a model based on the transmittance of the circuits most exposed to lightning overvoltages. The conducted tests were supported by impedance measurements carried out with an LCR-8110G meter. The obtained results made possible the development of a preliminary drone simulation model, allowing us to determine the size of the disturbances arising in individual circuits during nearby lightning. A discussion of the influence of close lightning discharges on expected induced overvoltages in a drone electronics system is also conducted in the paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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Review

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18 pages, 1342 KiB

Open AccessReview

Methods for Enhancing the Electrical Properties of Epoxy Matrix Composites

by Dariusz Krajewski, Mariusz Oleksy, Rafał Oliwa, Katarzyna Bulanda, Kamil Czech, Damian Mazur and Grzegorz Masłowski

Energies 2022, 15(13), 4562; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134562 - 22 Jun 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3791

Abstract

This paper presents ways to modify epoxy resin matrix composites to increase their electrical conductivity. Good electrical properties are particularly important for materials used in the construction of vehicles (cars, trains, airplanes) and other objects exposed to lightning (e.g., wind turbines). When the [...] Read more.

This paper presents ways to modify epoxy resin matrix composites to increase their electrical conductivity. Good electrical properties are particularly important for materials used in the construction of vehicles (cars, trains, airplanes) and other objects exposed to lightning (e.g., wind turbines). When the hull plating is made of an electrical conductor (e.g., metal alloys) it acts as a Faraday cage and upon lightning discharge the electrical charge does not cause damage to the structure. Epoxy-resin-based composites have recently been frequently used to reduce the weight of structures, but due to the insulating properties of the resin, various modifications must be applied to improve the conductivity of the composite. The methods to improve the conductivity have been categorized into three groups: modification of the matrix with conductive fillers, modification of the composite reinforcement, and addition of layers with increased electrical conductivity to the composite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Issues of Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Mechatronics)

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