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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A4: Bio-Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 January 2023) | Viewed by 30727

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Lisandra Rocha Meneses

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Waste and Biomass Valorization Group (WBVG), Department of Applied Bioeconomy, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Chełmońskiego St. 37a, 51-630 Wrocław, Poland
Interests: lignocellulosic biomass; anaerobic digestion; biofuel; bioethanol; biomethanol; biomethane; biogas; biomass pretreatment; zero-waste; second and third generation biofuel production
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Dr. Abrar Inayat

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Guest Editor

1. Biomass & Bioenergy Research Group, Center for Sustainable Energy and Power Systems Research, Research Institute of Sciences and Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
2. Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
Interests: renewable and sustainable energy systems; biomass and bioenergy; waste to energy; process system engineering; heat integration; modelling, simulation and optimization; biofuels and hydrogen production; environmental science and engineering; solar thermal energy; energy management; hybrid energy systems; CO₂ capture and utilization
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Prof. Dr. Timo Kikas

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Guest Editor

Biosystems Engineering, Institute of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences, 51014 Tartu, Estonia
Interests: bioeconomy; biofuels; biomass conversion; biomethane; bioethanol; lignocellulosic biomass; pretreatment; renewable transport fuels
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The continued overexploitation of fossil fuels has led to the exhaustion of those very resources, and has brought environmental degradation, climate concerns, as well as severe and irreversible consequences for people, economies, and ecosystems around the world. As scientists, we need to act immediately to minimize the consequences of unsustainable development, reduce the drivers of climate change, decrease the global warming potential, and provide energy security across the globe. There is a need for research that promotes and develops the most efficient technologies and the most promising routes to produce energy—particularly from alternative sources of energy.

This Special Issue aims to address the gaps and challenges that affect the utilization and implementation of biopower technologies through the supply chain, from upstream to downstream processes. All types of original submissions are welcome. The topics of interest include, but are not limited to:

Biopower production trends;
Production and use of biomass resources;
Biomass pretreatment and conversion pathways;
Parameters that influence biopower generation;
Application of circular bioeconomy strategies and concepts;
Environmental aspects of biopower energy;
Development and implementation of new technologies;
Life cycle assessment approaches;
Scale-up and commercialization;
End uses and applications;
Synthesis and upgrading;
Process design and optimization;
Markets and policies;
Heat integration and heat recovery in biopower technologies;
Production of value-added products.

Dr. Lisandra Rocha Meneses
Dr. Abrar Inayat
Prof. Dr. Timo Kikas
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Heat and power
Biomass valorization
Combustion
Gasification
Anaerobic digestion
Pyrolysis
Torrefaction
Carbonization
Zero-waste
Circular economy
Process integration

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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12 pages, 4645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Pin Mill and Hammer Mill in the Fine Grinding of Sphagnum Moss

by Ari Ämmälä

Energies 2023, 16(5), 2437; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052437 - 3 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3248

Abstract

Dried sphagnum moss was ground using a pin mill and a hammer mill under various operating conditions, i.e., changes in the rotor frequency and feed rate. The specific energy consumption of the size reduction was recorded. The ground powder was characterized by median particle size, width of size distribution (span), loose and tapped bulk densities, and the Hausner ratio. Pin milling used less energy for size reduction than hammer milling, especially when the target size was below 100 μm. In both milling methods, the specific energy consumption was mainly caused by the rotor frequency used. However, in pin milling, the specific energy consumption was also dependent on the production rate: the higher the rate, the higher the energy consumption. No such dependence was observed with the hammer mill. The span was wider in pin milling than hammer milling in the intermediate product size range although the difference decreased at the fine and coarse ends. A similar pattern was found for bulk densities. However, the flowability of powder, as characterized by the Hausner ratio, was comparable between the grinding methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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16 pages, 1684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dark Fermentation of Arundo donax: Characterization of the Anaerobic Microbial Consortium

by Giuseppe Toscano, Gaetano Zuccaro, Anna Corsini, Sarah Zecchin and Lucia Cavalca

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1813; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041813 - 11 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1710

Abstract

The dark fermentation of lignocellulose hydrolysates is a promising process for the production of hydrogen from renewable sources. Nevertheless, hydrogen yields are often lower than those obtained from other carbohydrate sources due to the presence of microbial growth inhibitors in lignocellulose hydrolysates. In this study, a microbial consortium for the production of hydrogen by dark fermentation has been obtained from a wild methanogenic sludge by means of thermal treatments. The consortium has been initially acclimated to a glucose-based medium and then used as inoculum for the fermentation of Arundo donax hydrolysates. Hydrogen yields obtained from fermentation of A. donax hydrolysates were lower than those obtained from glucose fermentation using the same inoculum (0.30 ± 0.05 versus 1.11 ± 0.06 mol of H₂ per mol of glucose equivalents). The hydrogen-producing bacteria belonged mainly to the Enterobacteriaceae family in cultures growing on glucose and to Clostridium in those growing on A. donax hydrolysate. In the latter cultures, Lactobacillus outcompeted Enterobacteriaceae, although Clostridium also increased. Lactobacillus outgrowth could account for the lower yields observed in cultures growing on A. donax hydrolysate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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15 pages, 7368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Cell-Density Yeast Oil Production with Diluted Substrates Imitating Microalgae Hydrolysate Using a Membrane Bioreactor

by Ayşe Koruyucu, Karlis Blums, Tillmann Peest, Laura Schmack-Rauscher, Thomas Brück and Dirk Weuster-Botz

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1757; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041757 - 10 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2501

Abstract

Microbial oil production from industrial waste streams and biogenic resources, such as biomass hydrolysates, is emerging as a sustainable alternative to use of fossil and vegetable oils. However, the carbon sources of these substrates are typically diluted, leading to low product concentrations and, therefore, high fermentation and downstream processing costs. In this study, high-cell-density yeast oil production with a defined medium, which imitated the sugar composition of a diluted substrate, a typical microalgal biomass hydrolysate, is carried out on a 50 L scale using a membrane bioreactor (MBR) consisting of a microfiltration unit suited for industrial application. The process was run on a semi-continuous mode to reduce operational costs. Oleaginous yeast Cutaneotrichosporon oleaginosus was used as a biocatalyst and lipid production was induced by phosphate deficiency in the medium with a C/P ratio of 3515 g g⁻¹. In this way, high cellular lipid contents of up to 76.5% (w/w) of dry cell mass, an average lipid yield of 32% (w/w), and a lipid space–time yield (STY) of up to 8.88 g L⁻¹ d⁻¹ were achieved with final high cell densities of up to 116 g L⁻¹ dry biomass. Furthermore, use of a defined medium and elemental analysis of the yeast cells and yeast oil enabled drawing an accurate carbon mass balance of the production system. Carbon conversion efficiencies—fraction of total carbon supplied in the form of sugars converted into lipids at the end of the process—of up to 61.5% were achieved from diluted substrates using the MBR with total cell retention. Considering these results, it is concluded that utilization of an MBR on a semi-continuous mode would be very reasonable for yeast oil production, enabling high productivities with diluted sugar substrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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19 pages, 3489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Substitution of Natural Gas by Biomethane: Operational Aspects in Industrial Equipment

by Felipe Solferini de Carvalho, Luiz Carlos Bevilaqua dos Santos Reis, Pedro Teixeira Lacava, Fernando Henrique Mayworm de Araújo and João Andrade de Carvalho Jr.

Energies 2023, 16(2), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020839 - 11 Jan 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2474

Abstract

Global gas markets are changing as natural gas (NG) is replaced by biomethane. Biomethane is produced by upgrading biogas, which can have a molar concentration of methane to over 98%. This renewable energy has been injected into the pipeline networks of NG, which offers the possibility to increase its usage in industrial and residential applications. However, the expectation of the increase in biomethane proportion on the NG grids could increase the fluctuations on the composition of the NG–biomethane mixture in amplitude and frequency. In this context, the injection of biomethane into the existing network of NG raises a discussion about the extent to which variations in gas quality will occur and what permissible limits should exist, as variations in combustion characteristics can affect the operation of the combustion processes, with consequences for consumers, distributors and gas producers. This study describes a gas quality analysis with regard to the use of biomethane in industrial equipment, mixed or not mixed with NG, taking into account the indicators for gas interchangeability and provides a discussion on the necessary gas quality level to be achieved or maintained for efficient combustion in equipment originally designed to operate with NG. NG and biomethane real data collected for 92 consecutive days in 2022 and provided by two different companies in Brazil were used for this study. It is shown that the maximum deviation of the Wobbe Index (WI) of 5%, which is allowed for industrial plants, does not work for the operation of furnaces at temperatures of 1200 °C or more. In addition, it is shown that the WI, as defined in relation to the calorific value of the fuel, may allow inappropriate substitution of fuel gases, which is likely to reduce the range of blending of biomethane in NG pipelines. The results can be assessed to analyze how the addition of biomethane to NG grids will impact the WI and the equipment operation parameters such as the air-to-gas ratio, products-to-gas ratio, adiabatic flame temperature and furnace temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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13 pages, 2569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enzymatic Conversion of Hydrolysis Lignin—A Potential Biorefinery Approach

by Sharib Khan, Kait Kaarel Puss, Tiit Lukk, Mart Loog, Timo Kikas and Siim Salmar

Energies 2023, 16(1), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010370 - 28 Dec 2022

Viewed by 2122

Abstract

Lignin is an abundant and renewable source capable of replacing different raw materials in the chemical industry. It can be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) via different pretreatment methods. In the present study, hydrolysis lignin (HL) from the Sunburst^TM pretreatment technology was utilized to investigate its enzymatic conversion. At first, soluble HL fractions were obtained via alkali solubilization followed by acid precipitation, referred to as acid precipitated lignin (APL). Furthermore, the APL was tested with three different bacterial laccases to identify the optimal conditions for its conversion into small molecular weight fractions. Among the tested laccases, Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) (ScLac) displayed the highest rate of APL conversion with a high lignin dosage and under extremely alkaline conditions, i.e., 50 g/L in 0.25 M NaOH solution, resulting in higher molecular weight fractions. The increase in the molecular weight and quantitative linkages before and after the enzymatic oxidation of the APL were characterized by size exclusion chromatography (SEC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and two-dimensional heteronuclear single quantum correlation nuclear magnetic resonance (2D HSQC NMR) methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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18 pages, 2767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FTIR Analysis of Changes in Chipboard Properties after Pretreatment with Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm

by Paweł Tryjarski, Jakub Gawron, Bogusław Andres, Agnieszka Obiedzińska and Aleksander Lisowski

Energies 2022, 15(23), 9101; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239101 - 1 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1355

Abstract

A commercial three-layer particleboard served as model furniture for testing pretreatment with the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm.) over 9-, 12-, 16-, and 20-week periods based on the effects of reducing the enzymatic resistance of component cellulose. The effects of pretreatment were assessed based on Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of the treated particleboards, wherein indexes (peaks and peak ratios) connected with parameters influencing enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis were analysed. The data were analysed in two ways: the measurement of peak heights in both primary spectra and deconvoluted spectra. The peak heights for the determination of the total crystallinity index (TCI) were measured according to narrow and broad baselines. Time and how indexes are calculated were found to be the main factors significantly influencing the values of indexes of pretreatment in most cases. Until week 9, P. ostreatus pretreatment seems to be advantageous for biofuel production, which was illustrated by decreases in the intensity of the 1735 and 1505 cm⁻¹ peaks and A₁₅₀₅/A₁₇₃₅, A₁₅₀₅/A₁₃₇₅, A₁₅₀₅/A₁₁₅₈, and A₁₅₀₅/A₈₉₆ ratios in addition to a reduction in crystallinity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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19 pages, 6417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Steam Explosion Pretreatment of Sawdust and Oat Straw to Improve Their Quality as Biofuel Pellets

by Chukwuka Onyenwoke, Lope G. Tabil, Tim Dumonceaux, Duncan Cree, Edmund Mupondwa, Phani Adapa and Chithra Karunakaran

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7168; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197168 - 29 Sep 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2350

Abstract

Steam explosion pretreatment of sawdust and oat straw under mild, medium, and severe conditions was conducted to improve the quality of pellets generated from these feedstocks. This work examined the effects of temperature, time, and moisture content on the mechanical properties of biomass pellets. From the ANOVA conducted, the p-values of the regression models for all the response variables (dimensional stability, tensile strength, and pellet density) studied were significant (p < 0.05), except for the pellet density of steam-pretreated oat straw pellets. The interaction of these three factors did not significantly affect the response variables of oat straw pellets. In addition, the higher heating value (HHV) of treated biomass increased up to a maximum of about 9.5% and 7% as compared with the non-treated sawdust and oat straw, respectively. In addition, an increment of about 3.6-fold and 3.1-fold in pellet tensile strength of steam-pretreated sawdust and oat straw was observed, respectively. Microstructural examination of the pellets from steam-pretreated biomass revealed that the material contained particles that were more closely bonded and featured a cemented surface with fewer pores when compared to particles from untreated oat straw and sawdust. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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15 pages, 5614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Autothermal Siberian Pine Nutshell Pyrolysis Maintained by Exothermic Reactions

by Alexander Astafev, Ivan Shanenkov, Kanipa Ibraeva, Roman Tabakaev and Sergei Preis

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7118; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197118 - 28 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1513

Abstract

The global energy industry works towards an increased use of carbon-neutral biomass. Nutshell represents a regional bio-waste, i.e., a bio-energy resource. Pyrolysis is a common method for processing biomass into valuable energy products. The heat demand, however, limits pyrolysis applications. Yet, such demand may be addressed via exothermic pyrolysis reactions under selected operation conditions. Making the pyrolysis of Siberian pine nutshell autothermic comprised the objective of the study. The study involved analytical methods together with a pyrolysis experiment. The analytical methods included a thermogravimetric analysis combined with differential scanning calorimetry and an integrated gas analyzer. Thermophysical characterization was executed using a thermal diffusivity analyzer with the laser flash method. At 650 °C, pyrolytic heat was released in the amount of 1224.6 kJ/kg, exceeding the heat demand of 1179.5 kJ/kg. Pyrolysis at a lower temperature of 550 °C remained endothermic, although the combusted gas product provided 847.7 kJ/kg of heat, which, together with exothermic release, covered the required heat demand for the pyrolysis process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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19 pages, 2489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metagenomic Analysis of the Long-Term Synergistic Effects of Antibiotics on the Anaerobic Digestion of Cattle Manure

by Izabela Wolak, Małgorzata Czatzkowska, Monika Harnisz, Jan Paweł Jastrzębski, Łukasz Paukszto, Paulina Rusanowska, Ewa Felis and Ewa Korzeniewska

Energies 2022, 15(5), 1920; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15051920 - 6 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2879

Abstract

The conversion of cattle manure into biogas in anaerobic digestion (AD) processes has been gaining attention in recent years. However, antibiotic consumption continues to increase worldwide, which is why antimicrobial concentrations can be expected to rise in cattle manure and in digestate. This study examined the long-term synergistic effects of antimicrobials on the anaerobic digestion of cattle manure. The prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and changes in microbial biodiversity under exposure to the tested drugs was investigated using a metagenomic approach. Methane production was analyzed in lab-scale anaerobic bioreactors. Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria were the most abundant bacteria in the samples. The domain Archaea was represented mainly by methanogenic genera Methanothrix and Methanosarcina and the order Methanomassiliicoccales. Exposure to antibiotics inhibited the growth and development of methanogenic microorganisms in the substrate. Antibiotics also influenced the abundance and prevalence of ARGs in samples. Seventeen types of ARGs were identified and classified. Genes encoding resistance to tetracyclines, macrolide–lincosamide–streptogramin antibiotics, and aminoglycosides, as well as multi-drug resistance genes, were most abundant. Antibiotics affected homoacetogenic bacteria and methanogens, and decreased the production of CH₄. However, the antibiotic-induced decrease in CH₄ production was minimized in the presence of highly drug-resistant microorganisms in AD bioreactors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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Review

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18 pages, 1114 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Integration of Drying and Thermal Treatment Processes for Energy Efficient Reduction of Contaminants and Beneficial Reuse of Wastewater Treatment Plant Biosolids

by Julian Nylen and Madoc Sheehan

Energies 2023, 16(4), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041964 - 16 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2495

Abstract

Biosolids have been traditionally used as a beneficial resource in the agricultural industry. However, contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) threaten their reuse due to concerns of toxicity, bioaccumulation, and increased regulations on acceptable CEC concentrations in biosolids. The thermal treatment of biosolids has the potential to destroy/mineralize these contaminants as well as transform the biosolids into valuable biochar. However, the thermal processing of biosolids is highly energy intensive due to the energy costs associated with drying biosolids to the required moisture content for thermal processing. This article performs a brief review of the drying of biosolids from a physical and theoretical viewpoint. It also provides an overview of pyrolysis and gasification. It explains the impact that moisture can have on both the degradation of CECs and the products that can be obtained through the thermal treatment of biosolids. Additionally, model-based, lab-based, and pilot-scale examples of integrated drying and thermal treatment processes are reviewed. Key challenges, such as the need for co-pyrolysis and co-gasification, as well as the impact of biosolids composition on energetic viability, are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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18 pages, 1438 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Biodiesel Production from Microalgae

by Emilia Neag, Zamfira Stupar, S. Andrada Maicaneanu and Cecilia Roman

Energies 2023, 16(3), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031129 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4160

Abstract

Biofuels, as a renewable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective energy source, can reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. The researchers considered different approaches for obtaining high biodiesel yields from microalgae biomass. This work aims to present an overview of the feasibility of microalgae use in biodiesel production. Therefore, biodiesel production from microalgae oil via the transesterification process was explained in detail. The application of non-catalytic transesterification and catalytic transesterification was reviewed. The achievements in the application of homogenous catalysts, heterogeneous catalysts, and enzymatic catalysts for microalgae oil transesterification were discussed. The present technologies for biodiesel production from microalgae need more improvements to increase their efficiencies and reduce costs. Therefore, future research should focus on the development of effective catalysts for biodiesel production from microalgae biomass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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18 pages, 2571 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prospective of Response Surface Methodology as an Optimization Tool for Biomass Gasification Process

by Sara Maen Asaad, Abrar Inayat, Lisandra Rocha-Meneses, Farrukh Jamil, Chaouki Ghenai and Abdallah Shanableh

Energies 2023, 16(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010040 - 21 Dec 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2248

Abstract

The worldwide population growth and the technological advancements reported in the past few years have led to an increase in the production and consumption of energy. This has increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the primary driver of climate change. As a result, great attention has been paid to sustainable and green energy sources that can replace or reduce reliance on non-sustainable energy sources. Among the different types of renewable energy sources currently available, bioenergy has been reported as an attractive resource mainly due to its low cost and great availability. Bioenergy can be produced from different biomass sources and converted into biofuels or value-added products through thermochemical, biochemical, and chemical processes. Gasification is a thermochemical process commonly used for bioenergy production, and it is particularly attractive mainly due to its high efficiency. However, its performance is influenced by parameters such as type of feedstock, size of biomass particle, feed rate, type of reactor, temperature, pressure, equivalence ratio, steam to biomass ratio, gasification agent, catalyst, and residence time. In this paper, the influence of different performance parameters in the gasification process is analyzed, and optimization and modelling techniques are proposed as a strategy for product yield enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopower Technologies)

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