International Journal of Molecular Sciences

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15 pages, 2311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Interaction between 30b-5p miRNA and MBNL1 mRNA is Involved in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Differentiation in Patients with Coronary Atherosclerosis

by Chin Cheng Woo, Wenting Liu, Xiao Yun Lin, Rajkumar Dorajoo, Kee Wah Lee, A Mark Richards, Chuen Neng Lee, Thidathip Wongsurawat, Intawat Nookaew and Vitaly Sorokin

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21010011 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4050

Abstract

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in the arterial wall have diverse functions. In pathological states, the interplay between transcripts and microRNAs (miRNAs) leads to phenotypic changes. Understanding the regulatory role of miRNAs and their target genes may reveal how VSMCs modulate the pathogenesis [...] Read more.

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in the arterial wall have diverse functions. In pathological states, the interplay between transcripts and microRNAs (miRNAs) leads to phenotypic changes. Understanding the regulatory role of miRNAs and their target genes may reveal how VSMCs modulate the pathogenesis of coronary artery disease. Laser capture microdissection was performed on aortic wall tissues obtained from coronary artery bypass graft patients with and without recent acute myocardial infarction (MI). The mSMRT-qPCR miRNA assay platform (MiRXES, Singapore) was used to profile miRNA. The miRNA data were co-analyzed with significant mRNA transcripts. TargetScan 7.1 was applied to evaluate miRNA–mRNA interactions. The miRNA profiles of 29 patients (16 MI and 13 non-MI) were evaluated. Thirteen VSMC-related miRNAs were differentially expressed between the MI and non-MI groups. Analysis revealed seven miRNA-targeted mRNAs related to muscular tissue differentiation and proliferation. TargetScan revealed that among the VSMC-related transcripts, MBNL1 had a recognition site that matched the hsa-miR-30b-5p target seed sequence. In addition to predicted analysis, our experiment in vitro with human VSMC culture confirmed that hsa-miR-30b-5p negatively correlated with MBNL1. Our data showed that overexpression of hsa-miR-30b-5p led to downregulation of MBNL1 in VSMCs. This process influences VSMC proliferation and might be involved in VSMC differentiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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20 pages, 594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Control-Theoretic Model of Atherosclerosis

by Dorota Formanowicz, Jacek B. Krawczyk, Bartłomiej Perek and Piotr Formanowicz

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(3), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030785 - 12 Feb 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4305

Abstract

We propose a control-theoretic aggregate model of the progression of atherosclerosis plaque, a chronic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall, to study the basic features of this disease. In the model, we exploit the role of inflammation in the disease progression, and use [...] Read more.

We propose a control-theoretic aggregate model of the progression of atherosclerosis plaque, a chronic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall, to study the basic features of this disease. In the model, we exploit the role of inflammation in the disease progression, and use statins—drugs commonly recommended in atherosclerosis—to control this progression. We use a logistic function to allow for constrained growth of plaque. In the model, both the patient’s age and overall health impact the plaque growth and its sensitivity to statins. The model parameters are estimated using original data, or calibrated using published research as well as our own clinical and laboratory studies. We contend that our model helps to gauge the statins’ impact on a patient’s plaque thickness, hence the disease’s progression and cardiovascular risk, without requiring artery scans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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16 pages, 2072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Activation of Bone Marrow-Derived Cells Angiotensin (Ang) II Type 1 Receptor by Ang II Promotes Atherosclerotic Plaque Vulnerability

by Maxime Pellegrin, Karima Bouzourène, Jean-François Aubert, Aimable Nahimana, Michel A. Duchosal and Lucia Mazzolai

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(9), 2621; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19092621 - 4 Sep 2018

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4078

Abstract

Angiotensin (Ang) II triggers vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque development. Bone marrow (BM)-derived cells are key players in atherogenesis but whether Ang II induces plaque vulnerability directly through Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) activation on these cells remains to be clarified. In the present [...] Read more.

Angiotensin (Ang) II triggers vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque development. Bone marrow (BM)-derived cells are key players in atherogenesis but whether Ang II induces plaque vulnerability directly through Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1R) activation on these cells remains to be clarified. In the present study, we investigated whether a lack of AT1R on BM-derived cells might affect Ang II-mediated vulnerable plaque development. The 2-kidney, 1-clip (2K1C) model (Ang II-dependent mouse model of advanced atherosclerosis and vulnerable plaques) was generated in ApoE^−/− mice transplanted with AT1aR^−/− or AT1aR^+/+ BM. Plasma cholesterol as well as hepatic mRNA expression levels of genes involved in cholesterol metabolism were significantly lower in 2K1C mice transplanted with AT1aR^−/− BM than in controls. Atherosclerotic lesions were significantly smaller in AT1aR^−/− BM 2K1C mice (−79% in the aortic sinus and −71% in whole aorta compared to controls). Plaques from AT1aR^−/− BM 2K1C mice exhibited reduced lipid core/fibrous cap and macrophage/smooth muscle cells ratios (−82% and −88%, respectively), and increased collagen content (+70%), indicating a more stable phenotype. Moreover, aortic mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12p35, IL-1β, and TNF-α were significantly reduced in AT1aR^−/− BM 2K1C mice. No significant differences in either the number of circulating Ly6C^high inflammatory monocytes and Ly6C^low resident anti-inflammatory monocyte subsets, or in mRNA levels of aortic M1 or M2 macrophage markers were observed between the two groups. No significant differences were observed in splenic mRNA levels of T cell subsets (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg) markers between the two groups. In conclusion, direct AT1R activation by Ang II on BM-derived cells promotes hepatic mRNA expression of cholesterol-metabolism-related genes and vascular mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines that may lead to plaque instability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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15 pages, 5139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Atherogenic Effects of Vaspin on Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cell/Macrophage Responses and Hyperlipidemic Mouse Plaque Phenotype

by Kengo Sato, Remina Shirai, Maho Yamaguchi, Tomoyuki Yamashita, Koichiro Shibata, Taisuke Okano, Yusaku Mori, Taka-aki Matsuyama, Hatsue Ishibashi-Ueda, Tsutomu Hirano and Takuya Watanabe

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(6), 1732; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061732 - 11 Jun 2018

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4907

Abstract

Vaspin (visceral adipose tissue-derived serine protease inhibitor) was recently identified as a novel adipocytokine with insulin-sensitizing effects. Serum vaspin levels are reported either increased or decreased in patients with coronary artery disease. Our translational research was performed to evaluate the expression of vaspin [...] Read more.

Vaspin (visceral adipose tissue-derived serine protease inhibitor) was recently identified as a novel adipocytokine with insulin-sensitizing effects. Serum vaspin levels are reported either increased or decreased in patients with coronary artery disease. Our translational research was performed to evaluate the expression of vaspin in human coronary atherosclerotic lesions, and its effects on atherogenic responses in human macrophages and human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMC), as well as aortic atherosclerotic lesion development in spontaneously hyperlipidemic Apoe^−/− mice, an animal model of atherosclerosis. Vaspin was expressed at high levels in macrophages/vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) within human coronary atheromatous plaques. Vaspin significantly suppressed inflammatory phenotypes with nuclear factor κB down-regulation in human macrophages. Vaspin significantly suppressed oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced foam cell formation with CD36 and acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase-1 down-regulation and ATP-binding cassette transporters A1 and G1, and scavenger receptor class B type 1 up-regulation in human macrophages. Vaspin significantly suppressed angiotensin II-induced migration and proliferation with ERK1/2 and JNK down-regulation, and increased collagen production with phosphoinositide 3-kinase and Akt up-regulation in HASMCs. Chronic infusion of vaspin into Apoe^−/− mice significantly suppressed the development of aortic atherosclerotic lesions, with significant reductions of intraplaque inflammation and the macrophage/VSMC ratio, a marker of plaque instability. Our study indicates that vaspin prevents atherosclerotic plaque formation and instability, and may serve as a novel therapeutic target in atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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1 pages, 2879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adropin Contributes to Anti-Atherosclerosis by Suppressing Monocyte-Endothelial Cell Adhesion and Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation

by Kengo Sato, Tomoyuki Yamashita, Remina Shirai, Koichiro Shibata, Taisuke Okano, Maho Yamaguchi, Yusaku Mori, Tsutomu Hirano and Takuya Watanabe

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(5), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19051293 - 26 Apr 2018

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 8721

Abstract

Adropin, a peptide hormone expressed in liver and brain, is known to improve insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction. Serum levels of adropin are negatively associated with the severity of coronary artery disease. However, it remains unknown whether adropin could modulate atherogenesis. We assessed [...] Read more.

Adropin, a peptide hormone expressed in liver and brain, is known to improve insulin resistance and endothelial dysfunction. Serum levels of adropin are negatively associated with the severity of coronary artery disease. However, it remains unknown whether adropin could modulate atherogenesis. We assessed the effects of adropin on inflammatory molecule expression and human THP1 monocyte adhesion in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), foam cell formation in THP1 monocyte-derived macrophages, and the migration and proliferation of human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) in vitro and atherogenesis in Apoe^−/− mice in vivo. Adropin was expressed in THP1 monocytes, their derived macrophages, HASMCs, and HUVECs. Adropin suppressed tumor necrosis factor α-induced THP1 monocyte adhesion to HUVECs, which was associated with vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 downregulation in HUVECs. Adropin shifted the phenotype to anti-inflammatory M2 rather than pro-inflammatory M1 via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ upregulation during monocyte differentiation into macrophages. Adropin had no significant effects on oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced foam cell formation in macrophages. In HASMCs, adropin suppressed the migration and proliferation without inducing apoptosis via ERK1/2 and Bax downregulation and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt/Bcl2 upregulation. Chronic administration of adropin to Apoe^−/− mice attenuated the development of atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta, with reduced the intra-plaque monocyte/macrophage infiltration and smooth muscle cell content. Thus, adropin could serve as a novel therapeutic target in atherosclerosis and related diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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10 pages, 604 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cytokine Disturbances in Coronary Artery Ectasia Do Not Support Atherosclerosis Pathogenesis

by Usama Boles, Anders Johansson, Urban Wiklund, Zain Sharif, Santhosh David, Siobhan McGrory and Michael Y. Henein

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(1), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19010260 - 16 Jan 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4642

Abstract

Background: Coronary artery ectasia (CAE) is a rare disorder commonly associated with additional features of atherosclerosis. In the present study, we aimed to examine the systemic immune-inflammatory response that might associate CAE. Methods: Plasma samples were obtained from 16 patients with coronary artery [...] Read more.

Background: Coronary artery ectasia (CAE) is a rare disorder commonly associated with additional features of atherosclerosis. In the present study, we aimed to examine the systemic immune-inflammatory response that might associate CAE. Methods: Plasma samples were obtained from 16 patients with coronary artery ectasia (mean age 64.9 ± 7.3 years, 6 female), 69 patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and angiographic evidence for atherosclerosis (age 64.5 ± 8.7 years, 41 female), and 140 controls (mean age 58.6 ± 4.1 years, 40 female) with normal coronary arteries. Samples were analyzed at Umeå University Biochemistry Laboratory, Sweden, using the V-PLEX Pro-Inflammatory Panel 1 (human) Kit. Statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between patient groups and controls were determined using Mann–Whitney U-tests. Results: The CAE patients had significantly higher plasma levels of INF-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8 (p = 0.007, 0.01, 0.001, and 0.002, respectively), and lower levels of IL-2 and IL-4 (p < 0.001 for both) compared to CAD patients and controls. The plasma levels of IL-10, IL-12p, and IL-13 were not different between the three groups. None of these markers could differentiate between patients with pure (n = 6) and mixed with minimal atherosclerosis (n = 10) CAE. Conclusions: These results indicate an enhanced systemic pro-inflammatory response in CAE. The profile of this response indicates activation of macrophages through a pathway and trigger different from those of atherosclerosis immune inflammatory response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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6232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Atherosclerotic Action of Agmatine in ApoE-Knockout Mice

by Anna Wiśniewska, Rafał Olszanecki, Justyna Totoń-Żurańska, Katarzyna Kuś, Aneta Stachowicz, Maciej Suski, Anna Gębska, Mariusz Gajda, Jacek Jawień and Ryszard Korbut

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(8), 1706; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18081706 - 4 Aug 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8697

Abstract

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease in which dysfunction of mitochondria play an important role, and disorders of lipid management intensify this process. Agmatine, an endogenous polyamine formed by decarboxylation of arginine, exerts a protective effect on mitochondria and modulates fatty acid metabolism. We [...] Read more.

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease in which dysfunction of mitochondria play an important role, and disorders of lipid management intensify this process. Agmatine, an endogenous polyamine formed by decarboxylation of arginine, exerts a protective effect on mitochondria and modulates fatty acid metabolism. We investigated the effect of exogenous agmatine on the development of atherosclerosis and changes in lipid profile in apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE-/-) mice. Agmatine caused an approximate 40% decrease of atherosclerotic lesions, as estimated by en face and cross-section methods with an influence on macrophage but not on smooth muscle content in the plaques. Agmatine treatment did not changed gelatinase activity within the plaque area. What is more, the action of agmatine was associated with an increase in the number of high density lipoproteins (HDL) in blood. Real-Time PCR analysis showed that agmatine modulates liver mRNA levels of many factors involved in oxidation of fatty acid and cholesterol biosynthesis. Two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry identified 27 differentially expressed mitochondrial proteins upon agmatine treatment in the liver of apoE-/- mice, mostly proteins related to metabolism and apoptosis. In conclusion, prolonged administration of agmatine inhibits atherosclerosis in apoE-/- mice; however, the exact mechanisms linking observed changes and elevations of HDL plasma require further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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2569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The SGLT2 Inhibitor Luseogliflozin Rapidly Normalizes Aortic mRNA Levels of Inflammation-Related but Not Lipid-Metabolism-Related Genes and Suppresses Atherosclerosis in Diabetic ApoE KO Mice

by Yusuke Nakatsu, Hiroki Kokubo, Batmunkh Bumdelger, Masao Yoshizumi, Takeshi Yamamotoya, Yasuka Matsunaga, Koji Ueda, Yuki Inoue, Masa-Ki Inoue, Midori Fujishiro, Akifumi Kushiyama, Hiraku Ono, Hideyuki Sakoda and Tomoichiro Asano

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(8), 1704; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18081704 - 4 Aug 2017

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 7008

Abstract

Recent clinical studies have revealed the treatment of diabetic patients with sodium glucose co-transporter2 (SGLT2) inhibitors to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular events. Using nicotinamide and streptozotocin (NA/STZ) -treated ApoE KO mice, we investigated the effects of short-term (seven days) treatment with the [...] Read more.

Recent clinical studies have revealed the treatment of diabetic patients with sodium glucose co-transporter2 (SGLT2) inhibitors to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular events. Using nicotinamide and streptozotocin (NA/STZ) -treated ApoE KO mice, we investigated the effects of short-term (seven days) treatment with the SGLT2 inhibitor luseogliflozin on mRNA levels related to atherosclerosis in the aorta, as well as examining the long-term (six months) effects on atherosclerosis development. Eight-week-old ApoE KO mice were treated with NA/STZ to induce diabetes mellitus, and then divided into two groups, either untreated, or treated with luseogliflozin. Seven days after the initiation of luseogliflozin administration, atherosclerosis-related mRNA levels in the aorta were compared among four groups; i.e., wild type C57/BL6J, native ApoE KO, and NA/STZ-treated ApoE KO mice, with or without luseogliflozin. Short-term luseogliflozin treatment normalized the expression of inflammation-related genes such as F4/80, TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, ICAM-1, PECAM-1, MMP2 and MMP9 in the NA/STZ-treated ApoE KO mice, which showed marked elevations as compared with untreated ApoE KO mice. In contrast, lipid metabolism-related genes were generally unaffected by luseogliflozin treatment. Furthermore, after six-month treatment with luseogliflozin, in contrast to the severe and widely distributed atherosclerotic changes in the aortas of NA/STZ-treated ApoE KO mice, luseogliflozin treatment markedly attenuated the progression of atherosclerosis, without affecting serum lipid parameters such as high density lipoprotein, low density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels. Given that luseogliflozin normalized the aortic mRNA levels of inflammation-related, but not lipid-related, genes soon after the initiation of treatment, it is not unreasonable to speculate that the anti-atherosclerotic effect of this SGLT2 inhibitor emerges rapidly, possibly via the prevention of inflammation rather than of hyperlipidemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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Review

Jump to: Research

23 pages, 3301 KiB

Open AccessReview

Senescent Microvesicles: A Novel Advance in Molecular Mechanisms of Atherosclerotic Calcification

by Matilde Alique, Rafael Ramírez-Carracedo, Guillermo Bodega, Julia Carracedo and Rafael Ramírez

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(7), 2003; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19072003 - 9 Jul 2018

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6690

Abstract

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease that causes the most heart attacks and strokes in humans, is the leading cause of death in the developing world; its principal clinical manifestation is coronary artery disease. The development of atherosclerosis is attributed to the aging process [...] Read more.

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease that causes the most heart attacks and strokes in humans, is the leading cause of death in the developing world; its principal clinical manifestation is coronary artery disease. The development of atherosclerosis is attributed to the aging process itself (biological aging) and is also associated with the development of chronic diseases (premature aging). Both aging processes produce an increase in risk factors such as oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction and proinflammatory cytokines (oxi-inflamm-aging) that might generate endothelial senescence associated with damage in the vascular system. Cellular senescence increases microvesicle release as carriers of molecular information, which contributes to the development and calcification of atherosclerotic plaque, as a final step in advanced atherosclerotic plaque formation. Consequently, this review aims to summarize the information gleaned to date from studies investigating how the senescent extracellular vesicles, by delivering biological signalling, contribute to atherosclerotic calcification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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12 pages, 646 KiB

Open AccessReview

Roles of Oral Infections in the Pathomechanism of Atherosclerosis

by Ghazal Aarabi, Guido Heydecke and Udo Seedorf

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(7), 1978; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19071978 - 6 Jul 2018

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 8210

Abstract

Oral infections occur frequently in humans and often lead to chronic inflammations affecting the teeth (i.e., caries), the gingival tissues surrounding the teeth (i.e., gingivitis and endodontic lesions), and the tooth-supporting structures (i.e., periodontitis). At least four basic pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed [...] Read more.

Oral infections occur frequently in humans and often lead to chronic inflammations affecting the teeth (i.e., caries), the gingival tissues surrounding the teeth (i.e., gingivitis and endodontic lesions), and the tooth-supporting structures (i.e., periodontitis). At least four basic pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed that involve oral inflammations in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: (1) low level bacteremia by which oral bacteria enter the blood stream and invade the arterial wall; (2) systemic inflammation induced by inflammatory mediators released from the sites of the oral inflammation into the blood stream; (3) autoimmunity to host proteins caused by the host immune response to specific components of oral pathogens; (4) pro-atherogenic effects resulting from specific bacterial toxins that are produced by oral pathogenic bacteria. In this narrative review, we summarize published experimental evidence related to these four mechanisms and discuss their impact on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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23 pages, 1046 KiB

Open AccessReview

Unravelling HDL—Looking beyond the Cholesterol Surface to the Quality Within

by Sarina Kajani, Sean Curley and Fiona C. McGillicuddy

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(7), 1971; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19071971 - 6 Jul 2018

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 7758

Abstract

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles have experienced a turbulent decade of falling from grace with widespread demotion from the most-sought-after therapeutic target to reverse cardiovascular disease (CVD), to mere biomarker status. HDL is slowly emerging from these dark times due to the HDL flux [...] Read more.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles have experienced a turbulent decade of falling from grace with widespread demotion from the most-sought-after therapeutic target to reverse cardiovascular disease (CVD), to mere biomarker status. HDL is slowly emerging from these dark times due to the HDL flux hypothesis wherein measures of HDL cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) are better predictors of reduced CVD risk than static HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels. HDL particles are emulsions of metabolites, lipids, protein, and microRNA (miR) built on the backbone of Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1) that are growing in their complexity due to the higher sensitivity of the respective “omic” technologies. Our understanding of particle composition has increased dramatically within this era and has exposed how our understanding of these particles to date has been oversimplified. Elucidation of the HDL proteome coupled with the identification of specific miRs on HDL have highlighted the “hormonal” characteristics of HDL in that it carries and delivers messages systemically. HDL can dock to most peripheral cells via its receptors, including SR-B1, ABCA1, and ABCG1, which may be a critical step for facilitating HDL-to-cell communication. The composition of HDL particles is, in turn, altered in numerous disease states including diabetes, auto-immune disease, and CVD. The consequence of changes in composition, however, on subsequent biological activities of HDL is currently poorly understood and this is an important avenue for the field to explore in the future. Improving HDL particle quality as opposed to HDL quantity may, in turn, prove a more beneficial investment to reduce CVD risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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27 pages, 832 KiB

Open AccessReview

Systemic Inflammatory Response and Atherosclerosis: The Paradigm of Chronic Inflammatory Rheumatic Diseases

by Aikaterini Arida, Athanasios D. Protogerou, George D. Kitas and Petros P. Sfikakis

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(7), 1890; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19071890 - 27 Jun 2018

Cited by 131 | Viewed by 7332

Abstract

Patients with Chronic Inflammatory Rheumatic diseases (CIRD) are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), ascribed not only to classical risk factors, but also to the presence of chronic systemic inflammatory response. Αtherosclerosis, the cornerstone of CVD, is known to be accelerated in [...] Read more.

Patients with Chronic Inflammatory Rheumatic diseases (CIRD) are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), ascribed not only to classical risk factors, but also to the presence of chronic systemic inflammatory response. Αtherosclerosis, the cornerstone of CVD, is known to be accelerated in CIRD; rheumatoid arthritis promotes atheromatosis and associates with preclinical atherosclerosis equivalent to Diabetes Mellitus, which also seems to apply for systemic lupus erythematosus. Data on ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis, albeit more limited, also support an increased CV risk in these patients. The association between inflammation and atherosclerosis, has been thoroughly investigated in the last three decades and the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis and progression of atherogenesis has been well established. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress in vascular endothelial cells and macrophage accumulation, toll-like receptor signaling, NLPR-3 formation and subsequent pro-inflammatory cytokine production, such as TNFa, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-like cytokine 1A, are few of the mechanisms implicated in the atherogenic process. Moreover, there is evidence that anti-inflammatory biologic drugs, such as anti-TNF and anti-IL1β agents, can decelerate the atherogenic process, thus setting new therapeutic targets for early and effective disease control and suppression of inflammation, in addition to aggressive management of classical CV risk factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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23 pages, 664 KiB

Open AccessReview

ALUminating the Path of Atherosclerosis Progression: Chaos Theory Suggests a Role for Alu Repeats in the Development of Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease

by Miguel Hueso, Josep M. Cruzado, Joan Torras and Estanislao Navarro

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(6), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061734 - 12 Jun 2018

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6525

Abstract

Atherosclerosis (ATH) and coronary artery disease (CAD) are chronic inflammatory diseases with an important genetic background; they derive from the cumulative effect of multiple common risk alleles, most of which are located in genomic noncoding regions. These complex diseases behave as nonlinear dynamical [...] Read more.

Atherosclerosis (ATH) and coronary artery disease (CAD) are chronic inflammatory diseases with an important genetic background; they derive from the cumulative effect of multiple common risk alleles, most of which are located in genomic noncoding regions. These complex diseases behave as nonlinear dynamical systems that show a high dependence on their initial conditions; thus, long-term predictions of disease progression are unreliable. One likely possibility is that the nonlinear nature of ATH could be dependent on nonlinear correlations in the structure of the human genome. In this review, we show how chaos theory analysis has highlighted genomic regions that have shared specific structural constraints, which could have a role in ATH progression. These regions were shown to be enriched with repetitive sequences of the Alu family, genomic parasites that have colonized the human genome, which show a particular secondary structure and are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Here, we show the impact of Alu elements on the mechanisms that regulate gene expression, especially highlighting the molecular mechanisms via which the Alu elements alter the inflammatory response. We devote special attention to their relationship with the long noncoding RNA (lncRNA); antisense noncoding RNA in the INK4 locus (ANRIL), a risk factor for ATH; their role as microRNA (miRNA) sponges; and their ability to interfere with the regulatory circuitry of the (nuclear factor kappa B) NF-κB response. We aim to characterize ATH as a nonlinear dynamic system, in which small initial alterations in the expression of a number of repetitive elements are somehow amplified to reach phenotypic significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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14 pages, 15004 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 Signaling in Atherogenesis

by Aric Huang, Sarvatit Patel, Cameron S. McAlpine and Geoff H. Werstuck

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(6), 1607; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19061607 - 30 May 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6116

Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one cause of global mortality and atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of most CVD. However, the molecular mechanisms by which cardiovascular risk factors promote the development of atherosclerosis are not well understood. The development of new efficient [...] Read more.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one cause of global mortality and atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of most CVD. However, the molecular mechanisms by which cardiovascular risk factors promote the development of atherosclerosis are not well understood. The development of new efficient therapies to directly block or slow disease progression will require a better understanding of these mechanisms. Accumulating evidence supports a role for endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in all stages of the developing atherosclerotic lesion however, it was not clear how ER stress may contribute to disease progression. Recent findings have shown that ER stress signaling through glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3α may significantly contribute to macrophage lipid accumulation, inflammatory cytokine production and M1macrophage polarization. In this review we summarize our knowledge of the potential role of ER stress-GSK3 signaling in the development and progression of atherosclerosis as well as the possible therapeutic implications of this pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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18 pages, 609 KiB

Open AccessReview

Caloric Restriction and Its Effect on Blood Pressure, Heart Rate Variability and Arterial Stiffness and Dilatation: A Review of the Evidence

by Rachel Nicoll and Michael Y. Henein

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(3), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19030751 - 7 Mar 2018

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 12192

Abstract

Essential hypertension, fast heart rate, low heart rate variability, sympathetic nervous system dominance over parasympathetic, arterial stiffness, endothelial dysfunction and poor flow-mediated arterial dilatation are all associated with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. This review of randomised controlled trials and other studies demonstrates that [...] Read more.

Essential hypertension, fast heart rate, low heart rate variability, sympathetic nervous system dominance over parasympathetic, arterial stiffness, endothelial dysfunction and poor flow-mediated arterial dilatation are all associated with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. This review of randomised controlled trials and other studies demonstrates that caloric restriction (CR) is capable of significantly improving all these parameters, normalising blood pressure (BP) and allowing patients to discontinue antihypertensive medication, while never becoming hypotensive. CR appears to be effective regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, weight, body mass index (BMI) or a diagnosis of metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes, but the greatest benefit is usually observed in the sickest subjects and BP may continue to improve during the refeeding period. Exercise enhances the effects of CR only in hypertensive subjects. There is as yet no consensus on the mechanism of effect of CR and it may be multifactorial. Several studies have suggested that improvement in BP is related to improvement in insulin sensitivity, as well as increased nitric oxide production through improved endothelial function. In addition, CR is known to induce SIRT1, a nutrient sensor, which is linked to a number of beneficial effects in the body. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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13 pages, 3286 KiB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Roles of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Stimulated Gene-6 in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

by Rena Watanabe, Yuki Sato, Nana Ozawa, Yui Takahashi, Shinji Koba and Takuya Watanabe

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19(2), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19020465 - 5 Feb 2018

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7339

Abstract

Tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6) is a 35-kDa glycoprotein that has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects in experimental models of arthritis, acute myocardial infarction, and acute cerebral infarction. Several lines of evidence have shed light on the pathophysiological roles of TSG-6 in [...] Read more.

Tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6) is a 35-kDa glycoprotein that has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects in experimental models of arthritis, acute myocardial infarction, and acute cerebral infarction. Several lines of evidence have shed light on the pathophysiological roles of TSG-6 in atherosclerosis. TSG-6 suppresses inflammatory responses of endothelial cells, neutrophils, and macrophages as well as macrophage foam cell formation and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) migration and proliferation. Exogenous TSG-6 infusion and endogenous TSG-6 attenuation with a neutralizing antibody for four weeks retards and accelerates, respectively, the development of aortic atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-deficient mice. TSG-6 also decreases the macrophage/VSMC ratio (a marker of plaque instability) and promotes collagen fibers in atheromatous plaques. In patients with coronary artery disease (CAD), plasma TSG-6 levels are increased and TSG-6 is abundantly expressed in the fibrous cap within coronary atheromatous plaques, indicating that TSG-6 increases to counteract the progression of atherosclerosis and stabilize the plaque. These findings indicate that endogenous TSG-6 enhancement and exogenous TSG-6 replacement treatments are expected to emerge as new lines of therapy against atherosclerosis and related CAD. Therefore, this review provides support for the clinical utility of TSG-6 in the diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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New Insights into the Role of Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis

by Meng-Yu Wu, Chia-Jung Li, Ming-Feng Hou and Pei-Yi Chu

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18(10), 2034; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18102034 - 22 Sep 2017

Cited by 320 | Viewed by 16542

Abstract

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids, smooth muscle cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, necrosis, fibrosis, and local inflammation. Immune and inflammatory responses have significant effects on every phase of atherosclerosis, and increasing evidence shows that immunity plays a [...] Read more.

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the accumulation of lipids, smooth muscle cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, necrosis, fibrosis, and local inflammation. Immune and inflammatory responses have significant effects on every phase of atherosclerosis, and increasing evidence shows that immunity plays a more important role in atherosclerosis by tightly regulating its progression. Therefore, understanding the relationship between immune responses and the atherosclerotic microenvironment is extremely important. This article reviews existing knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of immune responses in the atherosclerotic microenvironment, and the immune mechanisms involved in atherosclerosis formation and activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathomechanisms of Atherosclerosis. Part I)

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