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Heavy Metals in Mushrooms

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A special issue of Journal of Fungi (ISSN 2309-608X).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 36067

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Prof. Dr. Miha Humar

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Guest Editor

Biotehnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: wood science; wood decay; wood protection; wood modification; service life prediction; water exclusion efficacy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Ivan Širić

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: food toxicology; mushrooms; trace elements; heavy metals and radionuclides; ecology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There is a wealth of scientific research focusing on improving and protecting the environment. One of the first steps of resolving pollution problems is to research and monitor the presence and concentration of hazardous substances, especially heavy metals. Emissions of heavy metals from anthropogenic sources have been constantly increasing in recent decades. Heavy metals are persistent in the environment and, due to their ability to accumulate, threaten living organisms. Mushrooms are a distinct group of living organisms of considerable nutritional, pharmaceutical, and ecological value. They play a vital role in the majority of ecosystems in the biosphere because of their ability to biodegrade the substrate on which they grow. Mushrooms are known to accumulate high concentrations of toxic metallic elements, metaloids, and radionuclides, which vary more or less depending on factors such as species, habitats, morphological parts, substrate, and element biochemistry. The increasing concentrations of heavy metals in mushrooms also increase the importance of fungi as biological indicators of environmental pollution. However, extremely high concentrations of toxic heavy metals in mushrooms can have negative effects on human health. On the other hand, processing and preservation of edible and medicinal mushrooms may change their chemical composition. This Special Issue will present the latest findings on heavy metals in mushrooms and collate works through an open call to all researchers working in this field who would like to present their work in this issue.

Prof. Dr. Miha Humar
Prof. Dr. Ivan Širić
Guest Editors

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Keywords

heavy metals
mushrooms and human health
bioconcentration
element biochemistry edible and medicinal mushrooms

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research

3 pages, 194 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Preface to the Special Issue ‘Heavy Metals in Mushrooms’

by Ivan Širić and Miha Humar

J. Fungi 2023, 9(12), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9121163 - 3 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1379

Abstract

Population growth, intensive industrialization and urbanization have led to environmental pollution, especially soil and water pollution [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

18 pages, 2729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integration of Physiological, Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Reveals Molecular Mechanism of Paraisaria dubia Response to Zn²⁺ Stress

by Yue Wang, Ling-Ling Tong, Li Yuan, Meng-Zhen Liu, Yuan-Hang Du, Lin-Hui Yang, Bo Ren and Dong-Sheng Guo

J. Fungi 2023, 9(7), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9070693 - 21 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1437

Abstract

Utilizing mycoremediation is an important direction for managing heavy metal pollution. Zn²⁺ pollution has gradually become apparent, but there are few reports about its pollution remediation. Here, the Zn²⁺ remediation potential of Paraisaria dubia, an anamorph of the entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps gracilis, was explored. There was 60% Zn²⁺ removed by Paraisaria dubia mycelia from a Zn²⁺-contaminated medium. To reveal the Zn²⁺ tolerance mechanism of Paraisaria dubia, transcriptomic and metabolomic were executed. Results showed that Zn²⁺ caused a series of stress responses, such as energy metabolism inhibition, oxidative stress, antioxidant defense system disruption, autophagy obstruction, and DNA damage. Moreover, metabolomic analyses showed that the biosynthesis of some metabolites was affected against Zn²⁺ stress. In order to improve the tolerance to Zn²⁺ stress, the metabolic mechanism of metal ion transport, extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) synthesis, and microcycle conidiation were activated in P. dubia. Remarkably, the formation of microcycle conidiation may be triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. This study supplemented the gap of the Zn²⁺ resistance mechanism of Paraisaria dubia and provided a reference for the application of Paraisaria dubia in the bioremediation of heavy metals pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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18 pages, 3058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ectomycorrhizal Community Shifts at a Former Uranium Mining Site

by Olga Bogdanova, Erika Kothe and Katrin Krause

J. Fungi 2023, 9(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9040483 - 18 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1690

Abstract

Ectomycorrhizal communities at young oak, pine, and birch stands in a former uranium mining site showed a low diversity of morphotypes with a preference for contact and short-distance exploration strategies formed by the fungi Russulaceae, Inocybaceae, Cortinariaceae, Thelephoraceae, Rhizopogonaceae, Tricholomataceae, as well as abundant Meliniomyces bicolor. In order to have better control over abiotic conditions, we established pot experiments with re-potted trees taken from the sites of direct investigation. This more standardized cultivation resulted in a lower diversity and decreased prominence of M. bicolor. In addition, the exploration strategies shifted to include long-distance exploration types. To mimic secondary succession with a high prevalence of fungal propagules present in the soil, inoculation of re-potted trees observed under standardized conditions for two years was used. The super-inoculation increased the effect of lower abundance and diversity of morphotypes. The contact morphotypes correlated with high Al, Cu, Fe, Sr, and U soil contents, the dark-colored short-distance exploration type did not show a specific preference for soil characteristics, and the medium fringe type with rhizomorphs on oaks correlated with total nitrogen. Thus, we could demonstrate that field trees, in a species-dependent manner, selected for ectomycorrhizal fungi with exploration types are likely to improve the plant’s tolerance to specific abiotic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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17 pages, 3815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on Heavy Metal Removal from CCA-Treated Wood Waste by Yarrowia lipolytica: Effects of Metal Stress

by Dan Xing, Sara Magdouli, Jingfa Zhang, Hassine Bouafif and Ahmed Koubaa

J. Fungi 2023, 9(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9040469 - 13 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1988

Abstract

Bioremediation is an effective way to remove heavy metals from pollutants. This study investigated the effects of Yarrowia lipolytica (Y. lipolytica) on the bioremediation of chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood wastes. Copper ions stressed the yeast strains to improve their bioremediation efficiency. A comparison of changes in morphology, chemical composition, and metal content of CCA wood before and after bioremediation was conducted. The amount of arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and copper (Cu) was quantified by microwave plasma atomic emission spectrometer. The results showed that yeast strains remained on the surface of CCA-treated wood after bioremediation. The morphologies of the strains changed from net to spherical because of the Cu²⁺ stress. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy showed that carboxylic acid groups of wood were released after removing heavy metals. A large amount of oxalic acid was observed when the optical density (OD_600nm) was 0.05 on the 21st day. Meanwhile, the highest removal rate of Cu, As, and Cr was 82.8%, 68.3%, and 43.1%, respectively. Furthermore, the Cu removal from CCA-treated wood increased by about 20% after Cu²⁺ stress. This study showed that it is feasible to remove heavy metals from CCA-treated wood by Y. lipolytica without destroying the wood structure, especially by copper-induced Y. lipolytica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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15 pages, 2347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of the Wild Edible Leccinum Mushrooms Consumption According to the Total Mercury Content

by Marek Šnirc, Ivona Jančo, Martin Hauptvogl, Silvia Jakabová, Lenka Demková and Július Árvay

J. Fungi 2023, 9(3), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9030287 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1916

Abstract

Wild-growing edible mushrooms contain many biologically valuable substances. However, they are considered a risk commodity due to their extremely high capacity for bioaccumulation of potential risk elements and pollutants from the environment. Four bolete mushrooms from the genus Leccinum were collected from 16 forested areas of Slovakia from June to October 2019. The total mercury content in soil and fruiting body parts was determined by an AMA-254 Advanced Mercury Analyzer. Soil pollution by total mercury was evaluated by contamination factor (

C_{f}^{i}

). Bioaccumulation factor (BCF), translocation factor (Qc/s), percentage of provisional tolerable weekly intake (%PTWI), and target hazard quotient (THQ) were used to describe and compare uptake and transition abilities of mushrooms, and the health risk arising from consumption of the mushrooms. Total mercury content varied between 0.05 to 0.61 mg kg⁻¹ DW in the soil/substrate samples, and between 0.16 and 5.82 (caps), and 0.20 and 3.50 mg kg⁻¹ DW (stems) in fruiting body samples. None of the analyzed locations represented a health risk based on %PTWI values, however, three locations may pose a significant health risk from the perspective of THQ values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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12 pages, 1850 KiB

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Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals Occurrence in Two Wild Edible Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.) Collected from Rajaji National Park

by Ivan Širić, Pankaj Kumar, Bashir Adelodun, Sami Abou Fayssal, Rakesh Kumar Bachheti, Archana Bachheti, Fidelis O. Ajibade, Vinod Kumar, Mostafa A. Taher and Ebrahem M. Eid

J. Fungi 2022, 8(10), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101007 - 25 Sep 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2688

Abstract

This study aimed at assessing the concentration of six heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) in two wild edible oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and Pleurotus djamor) collected from Rajaji National Park in Haridwar, India. For this purpose, mushroom samples were collected from selected locations (forest, residential, tourist, industrial areas, and transportation activities) from June 2021 to July 2022 and subsequently analyzed for selected heavy metals using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Results showed that both Pleurotus spp. had significantly varying (p < 0.05) concentrations of heavy metals. However, P. ostreatus showed relatively higher concentration levels of these metals compared to P. djamor. The mean concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) of the Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in P. ostreatus and P. djamor were 0.10 and 0.08, 0.87 and 0.64, 16.19 and 14.77, 28.49 and 27.15, 9.93 and 8.73, and 18.15 and 15.76, respectively. As indicated by the multivariate analysis tools i.e., principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), the locations near the residential, industrial, and transportation activities had higher concentration levels of heavy metals. Moreover, the health risk studies using the target hazard quotient (THQ < 1) showed no significant health risk as the consumption of both Pleurotus spp., except for at one location, had high-traffic activities. The findings of this study provide vital information about the occurrence of potentially toxic heavy metals in wild edible Pleurotus spp. in Rajaji National Park in Haridwar, India representing a safeguard for mushroom consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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17 pages, 2401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycoremediation of Flotation Tailings with Agaricus bisporus

by Sylwia Budzyńska, Marek Siwulski, Anna Budka, Pavel Kalač, Przemysław Niedzielski, Monika Gąsecka and Mirosław Mleczek

J. Fungi 2022, 8(8), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8080883 - 22 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2299

Abstract

Due to their enzymatic and bioaccumulation faculties the use of macromycetes for the decontamination of polluted matrices seems reasonable for bioremediation. For this reason, the aim of our study was to evaluate the mycoremediation ability of Agaricus bisporus cultivated on compost mixed with flotation tailings in different quantities (1, 5, 10, 15, and 20% addition). The biomass of the fruit bodies and the content of 51 major and trace elements were determined. Cultivation of A. bisporus in compost moderately polluted with flotation tailings yielded significantly lower (the first flush) and higher (the second flush) biomass of fruit bodies, compared with the control treatment. The presence of toxic trace elements did not cause any visible adverse symptoms for A. bisporus. Increasing the addition of flotation tailings to the compost induced an elevated level of most determined elements. A significant increase in rare earth elements (both flushes) and platinum group elements (first flush only) was observed. The opposite situation was recorded for major essential elements, except for Na and Mg in A. bisporus from the second flush under the most enriched compost (20%). Nevertheless, calculated bioaccumulation factor values showed a selective accumulation capacity—limited for toxic elements (except for Ag, As, and Cd) and the effective accumulation of B, Cu, K, and Se. The obtained results confirmed that A. bisporus can be used for practical application in mycoremediation in the industry although this must be preceded by larger-scale tests. This application seems to be the most favorable for media contaminated with selected elements, whose absorption by fruiting bodies is the most efficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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16 pages, 3063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Copper Resistance Strategies of Rhodonia placenta and Phanerochaete chrysosporium in a Copper/Azole-Treated Wood Microcosm

by Gaurav Pandharikar, Kévin Claudien, Christophe Rose, David Billet, Benoit Pollier, Aurélie Deveau, Arnaud Besserer and Mélanie Morel-Rouhier

J. Fungi 2022, 8(7), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8070706 - 4 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

Copper-based formulations of wood preservatives are widely used in industry to protect wood materials from degradation caused by fungi. Wood treated with preservatives generate toxic waste that currently cannot be properly recycled. Despite copper being very efficient as an antifungal agent against most fungi, some species are able to cope with these high metal concentrations. This is the case for the brown-rot fungus Rhodonia placenta and the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium, which are able to grow efficiently in pine wood treated with Tanalith E3474. Here, we aimed to test the abilities of the two fungi to cope with copper in this toxic environment and to decontaminate Tanalith E-treated wood. A microcosm allowing the growth of the fungi on industrially treated pine wood was designed, and the distribution of copper between mycelium and wood was analysed within the embedded hyphae and wood particles using coupled X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)/Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The results demonstrate the copper biosorption capacities of P. chrysosporium and the production of copper-oxalate crystals by R. placenta. These data coupled to genomic analysis suggest the involvement of additional mechanisms for copper tolerance in these rot fungi that are likely related to copper transport (import, export, or vacuolar sequestration). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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13 pages, 1435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Cadmium Accumulation in Three Tricholoma Mushroom Species Collected from Wild Habitats of Central and Coastal Croatia

by Ivan Širić, Pankaj Kumar, Ebrahem M. Eid, Archana Bachheti, Ivica Kos, Dalibor Bedeković, Boro Mioč and Miha Humar

J. Fungi 2022, 8(7), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8070685 - 29 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2163

Abstract

This study deals with the biomonitoring of cadmium (Cd) heavy metal in the three selected Tricholoma mushroom species collected from wild habitats of central and coastal Croatia. For this, mushroom (T. columbetta: n = 38, T. portentosum: n = 35, and T. terreum: n = 34) and surface soil samples were collected from nine forest localities of Croatia and analyzed for Cd concentration using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry (ICP–OES) through the acid digestion method. The findings revealed that Cd was present in Tricholoma spp. and surface soil. However, the maximum mean Cd concentration (mg/kg dry weight) was recorded in T. portentosum (cap: 0.98; stipe: 0.72), followed by T. columbetta (cap: 0.96; stipe: 0.73) and T. terreum (cap: 0.81; stipe: 0.63). The bioconcentration factor (BCF) value (>1) revealed that the selected Tricholoma spp. had the potential for Cd accumulation. Moreover, the principal component (PC) and hierarchical cluster (HC) analyses were used to derive the interactions and similarities between Cd levels Tricholoma spp. and sampling localities. The multivariate analysis suggested that central sampling localities had higher Cd levels as compared to coastal localities. However, the daily intake of metals (DIM < 0.426) and health risk index (HRI < 1) showed that there was no potential health risk associated with the consumption of selected Tricholoma spp. The findings of this study are helpful to understand the Cd accumulation behavior of wild edible Tricholoma spp. collected from Croatia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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15 pages, 12544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungus–Fungus Association of Boletus griseus and Hypomyces chrysospermus and Cadmium Resistance Characteristics of Symbiotic Fungus Hypomyces chrysospermus

by Zhen Tian, Yunan Wang, Yongliang Zhuang, Chunze Mao, Yujia Shi and Liping Sun

J. Fungi 2022, 8(6), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8060578 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2601

Abstract

Fungi bioaccumulation of heavy metals is a promising approach to remediate polluted soil and water. Boletus griseus could accumulate high amounts of Cd, even in a natural habitat with low Cd contents. This study found a symbiotic association of B. griseus with a fungus. The symbiotic fungus was isolated and identified as Hypomyces chrysospermus. The isolated strain had a strong ability to tolerate Cd. The minimum inhibitory concentration of Cd of fungal growth was 200 mg·L⁻¹. The Cd bioaccumulation capacity of the fungus reached 10.03 mg·g⁻¹. The biomass production of the fungus was promoted by 20 mg·L⁻¹ Cd. However, high concentrations of Cd suppressed fungal growth and significantly altered the morphology and fine texture of fungal hyphae and chlamydospores. The immobilization effects of the cell wall and acid compounds and antioxidant enzymes were employed by the fungus to alleviate the toxic effects of Cd. The results not only demonstrate a new insight into the Cd bioconcentration mechanisms of B. griseus but also provide a potential bioremediation fungus for Cd contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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17 pages, 1803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exposure to Essential and Toxic Elements via Consumption of Agaricaceae, Amanitaceae, Boletaceae, and Russulaceae Mushrooms from Southern Spain and Northern Morocco

by Marta Barea-Sepúlveda, Estrella Espada-Bellido, Marta Ferreiro-González, Hassan Bouziane, José Gerardo López-Castillo, Miguel Palma and Gerardo F. Barbero

J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8050545 - 23 May 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2752

Abstract

The demand and interest in mushrooms, both cultivated and wild, has increased among consumers in recent years due to a better understanding of the benefits of this food. However, the ability of wild edible mushrooms to accumulate essential and toxic elements is well documented. In this study, a total of eight metallic elements and metalloids (chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se)) were determined by ICP-MS in five wild edible mushroom species (Agaricus silvicola, Amanita caesarea, Boletus aereus, Boletus edulis, and Russula cyanoxantha) collected in southern Spain and northern Morocco. Overall, Zn was found to be the predominant element among the studied species, followed by Cu and Se. The multivariate analysis suggested that considerable differences exist in the uptake of the essential and toxic elements determined, linked to species-intrinsic factors. Furthermore, the highest Estimated Daily Intake of Metals (EDIM) values obtained were observed for Zn. The Health Risk Index (HRI) assessment for all the mushroom species studied showed a Hg-related cause of concern due to the frequent consumption of around 300 g of fresh mushrooms per day during the mushrooming season. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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13 pages, 1741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) Concentration in Agaricus bisporus Mushroom Collected from Local Vegetable Markets of Uttarakhand State, India

by Pankaj Kumar, Vinod Kumar, Ebrahem M. Eid, Arwa A. AL-Huqail, Bashir Adelodun, Sami Abou Fayssal, Madhumita Goala, Ashish Kumar Arya, Archana Bachheti, Željko Andabaka, Kyung Sook Choi and Ivan Širić

J. Fungi 2022, 8(5), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8050452 - 27 Apr 2022

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 2972

Abstract

This study presents a spatial assessment of eight potentially toxic elements (PTE: Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, Mn, and Zn) in white button (Agaricus bisporus J.E. Lange) mushroom samples collected from the local vegetable markets of Uttarakhand State, India. Fresh A. bisporus samples were collected from thirteen districts and fifteen sampling locations (M1-M15) and analyzed for the concentration of these PTE using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). The results revealed that A. bisporus contained all eight selected PTE in all sampling locations. Based on the inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation, principal component (PC), and hierarchical cluster (HC) analyses, the areas with a plane geographical distribution showed the highest PTE concentrations in the A. bisporus samples as compared to those in hilly areas. Overall, the decreasing order of PTE concentration in A. bisporus was recognized as Fe > Zn > Mn > Cr > Cu > Ni > Cd > Pb. The Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA tests displayed a highly significant (p < 0.05) difference among the sampling locations. However, the concentration of PTE was below permissible limits, indicating no potential hazard in consuming the A. bisporus. Similarly, the health risk assessment studies using the target hazard quotient (THQ) also showed no significant health risk associated with the consumption of A. bisporus being sold in the local mushroom markets of Uttarakhand, India. This study is the first report on state-level monitoring of PTE in A. bisporus mushrooms, which provides crucial information regarding the monitoring and occurrence of potentially toxic metallic elements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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12 pages, 819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Use of Sewage Sludge as a Casing Material for Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) Cultivation: Experimental and Prediction Modeling Studies for Uptake of Metal Elements

by Pankaj Kumar, Vinod Kumar, Bashir Adelodun, Dalibor Bedeković, Ivica Kos, Ivan Širić, Saad A. M. Alamri, Sulaiman A. Alrumman, Ebrahem M. Eid, Sami Abou Fayssal, Madhumita Goala, Ashish Kumar Arya, Archana Bachheti, Kyung Sook Choi, Fidelis Odedishemi Ajibade and Luis F. O. Silva

J. Fungi 2022, 8(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8020112 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4662

Abstract

The present study focused on the use of sewage sludge (SS) as a casing material amendment and the potential uptake of metal elements by the cultivated white button (Agaricus bisporus: MS-39) mushroom. Laboratory experiments were performed under controlled environmental conditions to grow A. bisporus on the composted wheat straw substrate for 50 days. Different treatments (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 g/kg) of casing material were prepared by mixing garden and dried SS and applied on the mushroom substrate after proper sterilization. The results revealed that SS application was significant (p < 0.05) in accelerating mushroom yield with a biological efficiency of 65.02% for the mixing rate of 200 g/kg. Moreover, the maximum bioaccumulation of selected metal elements (Cu, Cr, Cd, Fe, Mn, and Zn) was observed using the same treatment. Additionally, the multiple regression models constructed for the uptake prediction of metal elements showed an acceptable coefficient of determination (R² > 0.9900), high model efficiency (ME > 0.98), and low root mean square error (RMSE < 0.410) values, respectively. The findings of this study represent sustainable use of SS for the formulation of mushroom casing material contributing toward synergistic agro-economy generation and waste management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavy Metals in Mushrooms)

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